Abstract
Fish culture or aquaculture is developing worldwide as a promising way to produce additional amounts of good-quality food and to compensate for the depletion of the fishing resources traditionally harvested. In countries such as Canada, aquaculture is also a means for an enhanced and controlled production of high-priced marine species such as shellfish and salmonids, among other products. Intensive aquacultural production systems require the availability of abundant and inexpensive sources of food for the marine animals being cultivated. Feeds for aquaculture processes account for some of the main costs associated with this economic activity. This fact is particularly true in northern areas, which need to import most of the feed components from distant places.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
An, G.-H., Schuman, D.B. and Johnson, E.A. (1989) Isolation of Phaffia rhodozyma mutants with increased astaxanthin content. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 55(1), 116–124.
Andrewes, A.G., Phaff, H.J. and Starr, M.P. (1976) Carotenoids of Phaffia rhodozyma, a red pigmented fermenting yeast. Phytochemistry, 15, 1003–100
Andruetto, S., Vigliani, E. and Ghittino, P. (1973) Possibile uso nei pellets per trota di proteine da leiviti coltivati su idrocarburi (Proteine BP). Riv. It. Piscic. Ittiop., 9(4), 97–100 (English summary).
Anonymous (1987) The impact of food science and technology on the EEC food industry in the next 1–15 years’, cited in PDR Notes 36, December 4, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Province of Ontario.
Arai, S., Müller, R., Shimma, Y. and Nose, T. (1975) Effects of calcium supplement to yeast grown on hydrocarbons as a feedstuff for rainbow trout. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Lab., Tokyo, 25(1), 33–40.
Atack, T.H., Jauncey, K. and Matty, A.J. (1979) The utilization of some single cell proteins by fingerling mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio). Aquaculture, 18, 337–348.
Banerjee, R.K. and Srinivasan, K.V. (1983) Composted urban refuse and primary sewage sludge as a fish-pond manure. Agric. Wastes, 7, 209–219.
Beck, H., Gropp, J., Koops, H. and Tiews, K. (1979) Single cell proteins in trout diets, in Proceedings of the World Sympsium on Finfish Nutrition and Fishfeed Technology, (eds J.E. Halver and K. Tiews), H. Heenemann GmbH & Co., Berlin, Vol. 2, pp. 269–280.
Bergström, E. (1979) Experiments on the use of single cell proteins in Atlantic salmon diets, in Proceedings of the World Symposium on Finfish Nutrition and Fishfeed Technology, (eds J.E. Halver and K. Tiews), H. Heenemann GmbH & Co., Berlin, Vol. 2, pp. 105–116.
Brown, E.E. (1983) World Fish Farming: Cultivation and Economics, 2nd edn, AVI Publishing, Westport, CT, pp. 2.
Dalzell, H.W., Biddlestone, A.J., Gray, K.R. and Thurairajan, K. (1987) Soil management: compost production and use in tropical and subtropical environments. FAO Soils Bulletin 56, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.
Davies, S.J. and Wareham, M. (1988) A preliminary evaluation of an industrial single cell protein in practical diets for tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus Peters). Aquaculture, 73, 189–199.
Dziezak, J.D. (1987) Application of food colorants. Food Technol., 14(4), 78–88.
Edwards, P., Polprasert, C., Pacharaprakiti, C. et al. (1983) Compost as fish feed, a practical application of detritivory for the cultivation of tilapia. Aquaculture, 32, 409–413.
Fänge, R. and Grove, D. (1979) Digestion, in Fish Physiology, Vol. 8 Bioenergetics and Growth, (eds W.S. Hoar, D.J. Randall and J.R. Brett), Academic Press, New York, pp. 162–260.
Foss, P., Storebakken, T., Scheidt, K. et al. (1984) Carotenoids in diets for salmonids I. Pigmentation of rainbow trout with individual optical isomers of astaxanthin in comparison with canthaxanthin. Aquaculture, 41, 213–226.
Foss, P., Storebakken, T., Austreng, E. and Liaeen-Jensen, S. (1987) Carotenoids in diets for salmonids V. Pigmentation of rainbow trout with astaxanthin and astaxanthin dipalmitate in comparison with canthaxanthin. Aquaculture, 65, 293–305.
Gentles, A. and Haard, N. (1989) Bioavailability of astaxanthin in Phaffia rhodozyma, in Advances in Fisheries Technology and Biotechnology for Increasing Profitability, (eds M.N. Voigt and J.R. Botta), Technomic, Lancaster, PA, pp. 373–386.
Gropp, J., Koops, H., Tiews, K. and Beck, H. (1976) Replacement of fishmeal in trout feeds by other feedstuffs, in Advances in Aquaculture, (eds T.V.R. Pillay and W.A. Dill), Fishing News (Books) Ltd, Farnham, Surrey, pp. 596–601.
Haard, N.F. (1988) Astaxanthin formation by the yeast Phaffia rhodozyma on molasses. Biotechnol. Lett., 10(9), 609–614.
Hari, R.P.K., Patel, T.R. and Martin, A.M. (1992) A new strain of Rhodotorula rubra isolated from yogurt. J. Ind. Microbiol., 11, 43–51.
Hari, R.K., Patel, T.R. and Martin, A.M. (1994) An overview of pigment production in biological systems: functions, biosynthesis and applications in food industry. Food Rev. Int., 10(1), 49–70.
Hickling, C.F. (1971) Supplementary feeding, in Fish Culture, 2nd edn, Faber and Faber, London, pp. 125–150.
Higuera, M. de la, Sánchez-Muniz, F.J., Mataix, F.J. and Varela, G. (1981) Nitrogen utilization by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) fed on the yeast Hansenula anomala. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 69A, 583–586.
Huet, M. (1986) Artificial feeding of fish, in Textbook of Fish Culture. Breeding and Cultivation of Fish, 2nd edn, Fishing News (Books) Ltd, Farnham, Surrey, UK, pp. 334–355.
Iida, A., Tayama, T., Kumai, T. et al. (1970) Studies on the nutritive value of petroleum yeast in carp and rainbow trout feeding. Suisan Zoshoku, 18, 35–43.
Johnson, E.A., Conklin, D.E. and Lewis, M.J. (1977) The yeast Phaffia rhodozyma as a dietary pigment source for salmonids and crustaceans. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 34, 2417–2421.
Johnson, E.A., Villa, T.G., Lewis, M.L. and Phaff, H.J. (1978). Simple method for the isolation of astaxanthin from the basidiomycetous yeast Phaffia rhodozyma. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 35(6), 1155–1159.
Johnson, E.A. and Lewis, M.J. (1979) Astaxanthin formation by the yeast Phaffia rhodozyma. J. Gen. Microbiol., 115, 173–183.
Johnson, E.A., Lewis, M.J. and Grau, C.R. (1980) Pigmentation of egg yolks with astaxanthin from the yeast Phaffia rhodozyma. Poultry Sci., 59(8), 1777–17782.
Johnson, E.A., Villa, T.G. and Lewis, M.J. (1980) Phaffia rhodozyma as an astaxanthin source in salmonoid diets. Aquaculture, 20, 123–134.
Kobayashi, M., Toshihide, K. and Nagai, S. (1991) Astaxanthin production by a green alga, Haematococcus pluvialis accompanied with morphological changes in acetate media. J. Perm. Bioeng., 71(5), 335–339.
Lawford, G.R., Kligerman, A. and Williams, T. (1979) Production of high-quality edible protein from Candida yeast grown in continuous culture. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 21, 1163–1174.
LeDuy, A. (1981) Microbial bioconversion of peat: a perspective, in Proceedings of the Peat as an Energy Alternative Symposium, The Institute of Gas Technology, pp. 479–493. Quoted in LeDuy, A. (1981) SCP from peat extracts — Chemical composition of substrates and products, in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Peat Utilization, (eds C.H. Fuchsman and S.A. Spigarelli), Bemidji State University, Bemidji, MN, pp. 89-116.
Litchfield, J.H. (1977) Comparative technical and economic aspects of single-cell protein process. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 22, (ed D. Perlman), Academic Press, New York, pp. 267–305.
Mahnken, C.V.W., Spinelli, J. and Waknitz, F.W. (1980) Evaluation of an alkane yeast (Candida sp.) as a substitute for fish meal in Oregon Moist Pellet: feeding trials with coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Aquaculture, 20, 41–56.
Martin, A.M., Goddard, S., Bemister, P. and DeVeau, G. (1991) Internal Project Report, Memorial University of Newfoundland. St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.
Martin, A.M., Acheampong, E., Patel, T.R. and Chornet, E. (1993) Study of growth parameters for Phaffia rhodozyma cultivated in peat hydrolysates. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol., 37, 235–241.
Martin, A.M., Goddard, S. and Bemister, P. (1993) Production of Candida utilis biomass as aquaculture feed. J. Sci. Food Agric., 61, 363–370.
Matty, A.J. and Smith, P. (1978) Evaluation of a yeast, a bacterium and an alga as a protein source for rainbow trout: I. Effect of protein level on growth, gross conversion efficiency and protein conversion efficiency. Aquaculture, 14, 235–246.
Meyer, S.A., Ahearn, D.G. and Yarrow, D. (1984) Genus 4. Candida Berkhout, in The Yeasts — A Taxonomic Study, (ed. N.J.W. Kreger-van Rij), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 585–844.
Miller, M.W., Yoneyama, M. and Soneda, M. (1976) Phaffia a new yeast genus in the Deteromycotina (Blastomycetes). Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 26(2), 286–291.
Moo-Young, M., Daugulis, A.J., Chahal, D.S. and Macdonald, D.G. (1979) The Waterloo Process for SCP production from waste biomass. Process Biochem., 14(10), 38–40.
Moo-Young, M. and Gregory, K.F. (1986) In Microbial Biomass Proteins, (eds M. Moo-Young and K.F. Gregory), Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. v–vi.
Murray, A.P. and Marchant, R. (1986) Nitrogen utilization in rainbow trout fingerlings (Salmo gairdneri) fed mixed microbial biomass. Aquaculture, 54, 263–275.
Noonan, J.E. (1985) An analysis of the factors affecting the future of FD and C colors. Cereal Foods World, 30(4), 265–267.
Nose, T. (1960) On the digestion of food protein by gold-fish (Carassius auratus L.) and rainbow trout (Salmo irideus G.). Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Lab., 10(1), 11–22.
Nose, T. (1974a) Effects of amino acids supplemented to petroleum yeast on growth of rainbow trout fingerlings — I. A preliminary experiment. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Lab., 24(1), 57–63.
Nose, T. (1974b) Effects of amino acids supplemented to petroleum yeast on growth of rainbow trout fingerlings — II. Methionine and cystine. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Lab., 24(2), 101–109.
Okagbue, R.N. and Lewis, M.J. (1983) Mixed culture of Bacillus circulans WL-12 and Phaffia rhodozyma on different carbon sources: yeast-wall lytic enzyme production and extractability of astaxanthin. Biotechnol. Lett., 5(11), 731–736.
Okagbue, R.N. and Lewis, M.J. (1984a) Use of alfalfa residual juice as a substrate for propagation of the red yeast Phaffia rhodozyma. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 20(1), 33–39
Okagbue, R.N. and Lewis, M.J. (1984b) Inhibition of the red yeast Phaffia rhodozyma by saponin. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 20(4), 278–280.
Okagbue, R.N. and Lewis, M.J. (1984c) Autolysis of the red yeast Phaffia rhodozyma: a potential tool to facilitate extraction of astaxanthin. Biotechnol. Lett., 6(4), 247–250.
Okagbue, R.N. and Lewis, M.J. (1985) Influence of mixed culture conditions on yeast-wall hydrolytic activity of Bacillus circulans WL-12 and on extractability of astaxanthin from the yeast Phaffia rhodozyma. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 59(3), 243–255.
Ogino, C. (1980) Requirements of carp and rainbow trout for essential amino acids. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish., 46(2), 171–174.
Peterson, D.H., Jager, H.K. and Savage, G.M. (1966) Natural coloration of trout using xanthophylls. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 95, 408–414.
Quierzy, P., Therien, N. and LeDuy, A. (1979). Production of Candida utilis protein from peat extracts. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 22, 1175–1190.
Raa, J. (1990) Biotechnology in aquaculture and the fish processing industry: a success story in Norway, in Advances in Fisheries Technology and Biotechnology for Increased Profitability, (ed. M.N. Voigt and J.R. Botta), Technomic, Lancaster, PA, pp. 509–524.
Rumsey, G.L. and Hughes, S.G. (1990) Use of dietary yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, nitrogen by lake trout. J. World Aquacult. Soc., 21(3), 205–209.
Saito, A. and Regier, L.W. (1971) Pigmentation of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) by feeding dried crustacean wastes. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 28(4), 509–512.
Schultz, E. and Oslage, H.J. (1976) Composition and nutritive value of single cell protein (SCP). Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 1, 9–24.
Scrimshaw, N.S. (1985) Acceptance of single-cell protein for human food applications, in Comprehensive Biotechnology, (ed. M. Moo-Young), Pergamon Press, Oxford, Vol. 4, pp. 673–684.
Sedmak, J.J., Weerasinghe, D.K. and Jolly, S.O. (1990) Extraction and quantitation of astaxanthin from Phaffia rhodozyma. Biotechnol. Tech., 4(2), 107–112.
Shay, L.K. and Wegner, G.H. (1985) Improved fermentation process for producing Torula yeast. Food Technol., 39(10), 61–66, 70.
Shimma, Y. and Nakada, M. (1974a) Utilization of petroleum yeast in fish feed — I. Effect of supplemental oil. Bull Freshwater Fish. Res. lab., Tokyo, 24(1), 47–56.
Shimma, Y. and Nakada, M. (1974b) Utilization of petroleum yeast in fish feed — II. Effect of growth and body lipids of rainbow trout fingerlings raised in cages. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. lab., Tokyo, 24(2), 111–119.
Shimma Y., Kato, T., Fukuda, Y. et al. (1976) Utilisation of petroleum yeast in fish feed — III. Long-term feeding tests on rainbow trout at 9.5°C and 17°C. Bull Freshwater Fish. Res. Lab., Tokyo, 26(1), 45–57.
Simpson, K.L., Klein-MacPhee, G. and Beck, A.D. (1983) Zooplankton as a food source, in Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Aquaculture Nutrition: Biochemical and Physiological Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition, (eds G.D. Pruder, C. Langdon and D. Conklin), Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, pp. 180–201.
Soeder, C.J. (1976) The technical production of microalgae and its prospects in marine aquaculture, in Harvesting of Polluted Waters, (ed. O. Devik), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 11–26.
Sommer, T.R., Potts, W.T. and Morrissy, N.M. (1991) Utilization of microalga astaxanthin by rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture, 94, 79–88.
Spinelli, J. and Mahnken, C. (1978) Carotenoid deposition in pen-reared salmonids fed diets containing oil extracts of red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes). Aquaculture, 13, 213–223.
Spinelli, J., Lehman, L. and Wieg, D.H. (1974) Composition, processing, utilization of red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes) as an aquacultural feed ingredient. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 31, 1025–1029.
Spinelli, J., Mahnken, C. and Steinberg, M. (1979) Alternative sources of proteins for fish meal in salmonid diets, in Proceedings the World Symposium on Finfish Nutrition and Fishfeed Technology, (eds J.E. Halver and K. Tiews). H. Heenemann GmbH & Co., Berlin, Vol. 2, pp. 131–142.
Storebakken, T., Foss, P., Schiedt, K. et al. (1987) Carotenoids in diets for salmonids. IV. Pigmentation of Atlantic salmon with astaxanthin, astaxanthin dipalmitate and canthaxanthin. Aquaculture, 65, 279–292.
Stringer, D.A. (1985) Acceptance of single-cell proteins for animal feeds, in Comprehensive Biotechnology, (ed. M. Moo-Young), Pergamon Press, Oxford, Vol. 4, pp. 685–694.
Tacon, A.G.J. and Jackson, A.J. (1985) Utilisation of conventional and unconventional protein sources in fish feeds, in Nutrition and Feeding in Fish, (eds C.B. Cowey, A.M. Mackie and J.G. Bell), Academic Press, London, pp. 119–145.
Tannebaum, S.R. and Wang, D.I.C. (eds) (1975) Single Cell Protein II, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA.
Tidemann, E., Raa, J., Stormo, B. and Torrissen, O. (1984) Processing and utilization of shrimp waste, in Engineering and Food, (ed. B.M. McKenna), Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London, Vol. 2, pp. 583–594.
Tiews, K., Gropp, J., Beck, M. and Koops, K. (1979) Compilation of fish meal free diets obtained in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) feeding experiments at Hamburg, in Finfish Nutrition and Fishfeed Technology, (eds) J. Halver and K. Tiews), H. Heenemann GmbH & Co., Berlin, Vol. 2, pp. 219–228.
Torrissen, O.J. (1986) Pigmentation of salmonids — a comparison of astaxanthin and canthaxanthin as pigment sources for rainbow trout. Aquaculture, 53, 271–278.
Torrissen, O.J., Tidemann, E., Hansen, F. and Raa, J. (1981) Ensiling in acid. A method to stabilize astaxanthin in shrimp processing by-products to improve uptake of this pigment by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Aquaculture, 26, 77–83.
Torrissen, O.J., Hardy, R.W. and Shearer, K.D. (1989) Pigmentation of salmonids — Carotenoid deposition and metabolism. Aquatic Sci., 1(2), 209–225.
Trivedi, N. (1986) Use of microorganisms in the production of unique ingredients, in Biotechnology in Food Processing, (eds S.K. Harlander and T.P. Labuza), Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, pp. 115–132.
Udall, J.N. and Scrimshaw, N.S. (1986) Evaluating the safety and nutritional value of microbial biomass, in Microbial Biomass Proteins, (ed. M. Moo-Young and K.F. Gregory), Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. 97–102.
Uden, N. van and Buckley, H. (1970) Genus 2. Candida Berkhout, in The Yeasts — A Taxonomic Study, (ed. J. Lodder), North-Holland, Amsterdam, pp. 893–1087.
Vasey, R.B. and Powell, K.A. (1984) Single-cell protein. Biotechnol. Genetic Eng. Rev., 2, 285–311.
Viola, S. and Zohar, G. (1984) Nutrition studies with market size hybrids of tilapia (Oreochromis) in intensive culture. Bamidgeh 36(1), 3–15.
Wheaton, F.W. (1977) Modified systems, in Aquacultural Engineering, John Wiley, New York, pp. 213–228.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Martin, A.M. (1994). Microbial biomass as a source of protein in the feeding of cultivated fish. In: Martin, A.M. (eds) Fisheries Processing. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5303-8_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5303-8_15
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-7420-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-5303-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive