Introduction

The significance of fisheries and aquaculture sectors towards global food security and nutrition has become increasingly apparent in the twenty-first century (FAO 2022). About 17% of the world’s population currently relies on aquatic food for animal protein needs (Shah and Mraz 2019). By 2030, the average annual consumption of aquatic foods is expected to rise by 15%, which is around 21.4 kg per capita (FAO 2022). Over the previous seven decades, total fisheries and aquaculture production have increased dramatically. It was only 19 million tonnes in 1950, but it reached an all-time high of around 179 million tonnes in 2018. Then, in 2019, production dropped drastically (1% less than in 2018) and only slightly increased (0.2%) in 2020, reaching 178 million tonnes (FAO 2022). Although aquaculture is growing due to the advances in farming practices and the adoption of innovative technologies, aquaculture still faces many significant obstacles (Shah and Mraz 2019). One of the major issues the aquaculture industry faces is increasing the production of aquatic organisms without increasing resource utilization or environmental damage (FAO 2018).

Nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most rapidly developing scientific technologies in recent years (Bayda et al. 2019). The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) of the United States defined nanotechnology as “the understanding and controlling of molecules at nanometer scale between 1–100 nm, as the matter becomes smaller, take up unique qualities that are not seen in bulk materials” (NNI 2022). Moreover, these unique properties enable the nanoparticles to have a wide range of novel applications in many fields of science and technology (Shaalan et al. 2016; Matteucci et al. 2018; Rather et al. 2018, 2021) and this usage of nanoscale materials in biological fields is termed as “nanobiotechnology” (Fakruddin et al. 2012; Rather et al. 2021). Nanoparticles have gained widespread usage in various sectors such as agriculture, food, cosmetics, medicine, textiles, and public health due to their potential to boost solubility and bioavailability while conserving bioactive components during processing and storage (Fu 2014; Ali et al. 2023).

In recent years, the food industry has made significant progress, especially in the areas of improved new packaging products, development of new functional products, transport and controlled release of bioactive substances, detection of pathogens using nano-sensors and indicators, and the purification of water using nanoparticles (Senturk et al. 2013). According to current forecasts, the global nanotechnology market applied to the food industry is growing at a CAGR (compounded annual growth rate) of 25.32% from 2020 to 2025, reaching $ 187.84 billion (Technavio 2022). Today companies like AQUANOVA AG, Trendlines Group Ltd., Nanophase Technologies Corp., BASF SE, Honeywell International Inc., Blue California Inc., CHASM Advanced Materials Inc. and Nanocyl SA etc. are among the leading firms in the nano food sector (Technavio 2022; Fajardo et al. 2022).

Nanoparticles (NPs) that form the core of nanotechnology are very tiny in size (less than 100 nm in size) and are made from diverse materials such as carbon, metals, metal oxides, and many other inorganic and organic substances (Matteucci et al. 2018). Various physical, chemical, and biological approaches for manufacturing nanoparticles have been developed with recent technological breakthroughs. Nanoparticles can be synthesized by reducing bulk material to nanometric scale (top-down approach) or by arranging atoms into nanoparticles (bottom-up approach) (Daraio and Jin 2011; Ealia and Saravanakumar 2017; Sakhare et al. 2022). Various organic and inorganic compounds, such as lipids, proteins, synthetic and natural polymers, and metals, can be used to manufacture nanoparticles (Yhee et al. 2014; Kim et al. 2013; Kuppusamy et al. 2016; Khan et al. 2019; Vijayaram et al. 2023). Recently, biosynthesis has become more popular since the nanoparticles are produced utilizing bacteria, plant extracts, fungi, etc., as precursors and are safe for the humans and environment (Hasan 2015; Kuppusamy et al. 2016).

Recently, several studies have reported regarding viability of using nanoparticles in the aquaculture and fisheries sectors (Fig. 1) (Khosravi-Katuli et al. 2017; Ogunkalu 2019; Nasr-Eldahan et al. 2021; Sarkar et al. 2022; Jimenez-Fernandez et al. 2014; Bhattacharyya et al. 2015; Huang et al. 2014; Luis et al. 2017; Rather et al. 2021; Vijayaram et al. 2023; Vibhute et al. 2023). Different forms and shapes of nanoparticles (NPs), such as nanospheres, nanotubes, nanoemulsions, nanocomposites, dendrimers, and so on, are found to have many positive outcomes in various areas of aquaculture and fisheries (Table 1). Nanotechnology/nanobiotechnology has the capability to enhance the aquaculture and fisheries sectors with its efficient pond sterilization and water treatment, rapid disease detection tools, improved gut absorption of medications, vaccinations, nutrients, and other applications (Fig. 2) (Rather et al. 2011; Jimenez-Fernandez et al. 2014; Bhattacharyya et al. 2015; Huang et al. 2014; Khosravi-Katuli et al. 2017; Luis et al. 2017; Rather et al. 2021; Sarkar et al. 2022; Vijayaram et al. 2023). Nanoparticles are particularly useful in delivering substances because they aid in tissue-specific targeting, dosage reduction, increased bioavailability, efficacy of the drug and reduction in the toxic or secondary adverse effects etc. (Xu et al. 2018). Additionally, nanoparticles enhance the yield in several ways by lowering feed nutrient losses, improving fish growth rates, and decreasing production costs (Luis et al. 2017).

Table 1 Beneficial effects of NPs in breeding & reproduction of fish
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Fig. 1
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Various areas of nanotechnology applications in aquaculture and fisheries

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Fig. 2
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Utilities of nanoparticles in aquaculture and fisheries sectors

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Apart from the positive aspects, nanoparticles also have negative impacts on the aquatic organisms due to pollution, which is mostly unknown or neglected at present moment (Mehboob et al. 2014; Huang et al. 2014; Sarkar et al. 2022). Therefore, the present comprehensive review, is mainly focused on the various applications of nanoparticles in the aquaculture and fisheries sectors. Herein, we have also detailed some of the consequences of nanotechnology, emphasizing the risks posed by nanoparticles to aquatic organisms.

Applications of nanotechnology in fisheries and aquaculture

Nanoparticles in aiding the well-being of culturing species

Growth and nutrition

Nanotechnology provides many novel opportunities for aquaculture by lowering nutrient losses in the feed, accelerating fish growth, and making aquaculture more sustainable (Luis et al. 2021). Nanoparticles increase the amount of nutrients absorbed through the gut instead of being excreted (Handy 2012; Ogunkalu 2019) and thus promoting aquatic animals’ growth (Bhattacharyya et al. 2015). Many researchers have reported the growth-promoting effects of nanoparticles in aquatic species (Bhattacharyya et al. 2015; Satgurunathan et al. 2018; Ogunkalu 2019; Abdel-Tawwab et al. 2019; Abdel-Warith et al. 2020; Ghazi et al. 2021). The nanoparticles, such as nano-chitosan, stimulate growth in aquatic organisms by improving the feed conversion ratio and total body weight (Wang et al. 2011; Abdel-Ghany and Salem 2019). Many studies have found that dietary inclusion of nano chitosan between 1 and 5 g/kg promotes fish growth and feed utilization in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). The dietary supplementation of nano chitosan enhances growth by improving digestive enzyme activity while limiting intestinal bacteria populations’ growth. Moreover, it also helps improve several markers of innate immunity and antioxidant levels in the fish (Abdel-Tawwab et al. 2019; Abd El-Naby et al. 2019; Kumaran et al. 2021).

Similarly, in shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), feeding the diets incorporated with 2.13–2.67 g/kg of chitosan nanoparticles (NPs) promoted growth performance by increasing the rate of digestion and absorption of ingested food (NIU et al. 2011). Likewise, Abdel-Warith et al. (2020) have found that feeding shrimp (P. monodon) with diets containing 44% protein and fortified with Spirulina platensis and chitosan nanoparticles could improve the growth performance and nutritional contents. This supplementation, however, significantly increased the protein and fat content of the shrimp’s body. Nevertheless, alone supplementation of 1% nano Arthrospira platensis (NAP) to shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) can also improve growth performance, feed utilization, and various growth-related gene expressions compared to the control groups (Sharawy et al. 2022).

Selenium (Se) is considered one of the essential trace elements for animal life. Compared to inorganic and organic forms of selenium, the novel nano form is more studied because of its higher bioavailability and low toxicity (Khurana et al. 2019; Sun et al. 2022). Khosravi-Katuli et al. (2017) have summarized various benefits to aquatic species and cattle by using Se nanoparticles in reproduction, digestion, development, immunomodulation, and toxin concentration. Nano form of selenium helps in promotes body development by enhancing various growth parameters. For instance, a little (0.2 mg/kg) dietary inclusion of Se NPs results in superior weight gain, growth rate, and feed coefficient. It also increases fish resistance to illness and the effects of hypoxia (Qin et al. 2016). Studies have found that adding nano-Se and seleno-methionine in feed increases the final weight and relative growth rate and boosts antioxidant status, GSH-Px activity, and muscle Se concentrations in fish, helping in stress mitigation (Handy et al. 2012; Sekhon 2014). Likewise, a blend of Se-NP and Zn-NP supplied via feed have synergistic effects and boosts the growth performance, feed utilization, immunological responses, oxidative stress responses, and intestinal histo-morphology of fish (Ghazi et al. 2021). However, another essential element, zinc, also plays a significant role in living organisms’ body growth. Swain et al. (2018) have reported that the dietary supplementation of feed composed of 10 mg/kg of ZnO-NPs and 0.3 mg/kg of Se-NPs to the fish (L. rohita) improved its growth performance by boosting various enzyme activities and also promotes the non-specific immune response in fish. While in shrimp (Litopenaeus vennamei), Karamzadeh et al. (2022) have observed that when compared to Se-NPs or Zn-NPs given alone, co-supplementation of these two NPs results in improved performance, antioxidant status, and immunological responses. Furthermore, iron also shows synergistic effects with selenium when supplied both in a nano form, enhancing the welfare of the culture species. Studies revealed that a blend of iron (Fe) and selenium (Se) nanoparticles supplied through diet have growth-promoting effects in fish (Fonghsu et al. 2008; Frederick et al. 2010).

Many studies have revealed that nano forms are more efficient than bulk ones. Further, Behera et al. (2013) reported that supplementing both the Nano-Fe and ferrous sulfate in the basal diet has improved the welfare of fish by increasing final body weight, improving various antioxidant enzymatic activities, and also stimulating hematological and immunological markers in Labeo rohita. But in addition to that, the nano-Fe supplement also increased the muscle iron and hemoglobin content more effectively than the bulk form, ferrous sulfate. When fed with iron nanoparticles, it dramatically boosts the growth rates, likewise in juvenile carp by 30% and sturgeon fish by 24% (ETC 2003). Akter et al. (2018) reported that the optimal dosage of iron NPs for dietary inclusion is about 40 mg/kg feed would be more advantageous in improving the growth and health of fish (C. batrachus). Nonetheless, using more than the specified dose may negatively affect growth. Meanwhile, Elabd et al. (2022) have found that the nano iron oxide (nFe2O3) incorporation at a dose of up to 1 g/kg feed also shows good results such as improved growth, hemato-biochemical parameters, immune response, antioxidative profiles, and related gene expression in fish, O. niloticus.

Similarly, nanoparticles are very prominent in crustacean species. Also, Satgurunathan et al. (2022) have recently observed the growth-inducing effects of green-synthesized selenium nanoparticles derived from garlic cloves in Macrobrachium rosenbergii. The results showed a significant rise in protein, essential amino acids, lipids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, carbohydrates, and ash contents in the shrimp feeding with GBGS-SeNPs. These findings indicate that GBGS-SeNPs potentially stimulate prawn growth. Furthermore, nanoparticles such as Cu-NPs were reported for their growth-inducing effects in post-larvae (PL). Cu-NPs at 20 mg/kg would enhance survival, growth, and immune response in M. rosenbergii, but at higher concentrations, it may cause toxicity (Muralisankar et al. 2016); however, to counteract these toxic effects, Satgurunathan et al. (2018) suggested that feeding Cu NPs-enriched Artemia nauplii resulted in significant improvements in nutritional indices like growth and survival, as well as concentrations of tissue biochemical constituents like total protein, amino acid, carbohydrate, and lipid of M. rosenbergii post-larvae. In prawns, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, supplementing a post-larval diet with nano magnesium oxide (Srinivasan et al. 2016) and manganese oxide nanoparticles (Asaikkutti et al. 2016), promotes survival and growth performance and improves dietary enzyme activities. Few other nanoparticles, such as chromium oxide (Cr3O4) and cobalt oxide (Co3O4), are efficient in increasing the protein content of Labeo rohita (Kanwal et al. 2019).

Therefore, incorporating minimal amounts of nanoparticles into the diet improves aquatic animal’s welfare. Recently, several chemical companies have started producing nutrients using nanotechnology in aquaculture. Filo Life Sciences, a nanotech-based company in India, manufactures various essential nutritional and nutraceutical products such as ColloidAG Aqua (nanosilver), Fabgrow Aqua (nano polyunsaturated fatty acids), Nanomin Aqua (nano trace minerals), NanoCAL Aqua (nano calcium), and NanoPHOS Aqua (nano phosphorus) (Sarkar et al. 2022).

Health and immunity

Aquaculture faces many severe challenges from pathogens like bacteria, fungi, and viruses. However, controlled traditionally by using chemical disinfectants and antibiotics (Huang et al. 2014) but develop resistance. Bacterial diseases are the most common cause of death in aquaculture, mainly in hatcheries. The water source used and the feed given to the fish play a role in determining the prevalence of bacteria in aquaculture (Jamabo et al. 2019). Over many decades, antibiotics have been used to treat bacterial diseases. Nonetheless, if antibiotic usage is not strictly regulated, bacteria immune to antibiotics can evolve (Pelgrift et al. 2013; Cabello et al. 2013).

In recent years, antibiotic resistance has persisted and even increased due to the overuse of antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria acquire the ability to resist the medications designed to kill them (Perez-Sanchez et al. 2018). Many antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains emerged, like Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and other multi and super-drug-resistant bacterial strains (Atyah et al. 2010; Davies and Davies 2010). Furthermore, several Aeromonas hydrophila isolates from captive tilapia were resistant to broad-spectrum antibiotics such as tetracycline, streptomycin, and erythromycin. Some others include Aeromonas salmonicida, Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida, Yersinia ruckeri, Vibrio, Listeria, Pseudomonas, and Edwardsiella species were antibiotic-resistant (Swain et al. 2014; Wu et al. 2020; Sherif et al. 2020).

However, extraordinary new opportunities have emerged with the development of nanotechnology for increasing productivity and preserving the health of aquatic species (Can et al. 2011). While antibiotic-resistant bacteria are a growing problem in aquaculture, researchers are investigating using nanoparticles as an alternative antimicrobial (Shaalan et al. 2016). In particular, metal nanoparticles have attracted much interest as potent antibacterial agents because of their wide-ranging antimicrobial action, stability, resistance, selectivity, and specificity (Swain et al. 2014). These perform antibacterial activity by forming oxygen species around the bacterial cell and causing cell rupture, especially against E. coli and MRSA (Das et al. 2017). Various nanoparticles, such as nano-silver and nano-zinc oxide, were already being used because of their antimicrobial and prophylactic characteristics in reducing the prevalence of pathogens in aquaculture (Siddiqi et al. 2018).However, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have a broad range of activity and work on various bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses by disrupting the enzymes required for their metabolism (Selvaraj et al. 2014; Ghetas et al. 2022; Jhanani et al. 2021). Studies found that Silver NPs can significantly reduce the growth of many studied isolates of disease-causing micro-organisms such as Lactococcus garvieae, A. hydrophila, Streptococcus iniae as well as Yersinia ruckeri after 30 to 90 min of exposure (Soltani et al. 2009), and a few antibiotic-resistant bacteria such as Aeromonas veronii and MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus) can also be eliminated (Elgendy et al. 2021; Masimen et al. 2022). However, a dose of 0.8 mg/L AgNPs can improve the immune functions suppressed by Aeromonas hydrophila in Nile tilapia (El-Houseiny et al. 2021). Likely a dose of 100 µg/L AgNPs in water was effective against Flavobacterium johnsoniae infection in common carp (Shalaan 2020). Li et al. (2015) reported that Ag3PO4-loaded hydroxyapatite nanowires could prevent the growth of E. coli and S. aureus in water systems to a significant amount. Moreover, Silver (Ag) NPs considerably improve the survival and tolerance against vibriosis disease in shrimps such as Penaeus monodon (Kandasamy et al. 2013).

Recently, researchers have reported that a 2.5 ppm dose of a copper nanoparticles-chitosan composite (CuCS) is very effective in combating the Vibrio parahaemolyticus, which causes Early Mortality Syndrome (EMS) in shrimp (Nguyen et al. 2020). Similarly, Behera et al. (2013) have reported that supplementing Nano-Fe and ferrous sulfate in the basal diet improves the immunity in Labeo rohita. The nano form of iron (Fe) supplement elevates muscle iron and hemoglobin content more effectively than ferrous sulfate. Therefore, it may help treat anemia disease in fish.

Recent studies revealed that nanoparticles are highly efficient when applied directly to water (Johari et al. 2015; Kalatehjari et al. 2015). A silver nanoparticle-coated water filter can mitigate fungal infections in rainbow trout aquaculture (Johari et al. 2015). Similarly, in-vitro application of nanoparticles, such as colloidal nano-copper particles at a concentration of 10 ppm, can inhibit fungus growth, such as Saprolegnia sp. Therefore, Cu NPs act as potential antimicrobial agents by applying them to the structural system of aquaculture equipment like fiberglass troughs, rearing tanks, and hatchery apparatus (Kalatehjari et al. 2015).

Pesticide-laden runoff from agriculture is a major issue in the aquaculture sector. Nevertheless, nanoparticles would help to decrease the adverse effects of these chemicals. For example, the pesticide imidacloprid causes toxicity in aquatic organisms. According to a study, vitamin C and chitosan nanoparticles can attenuate the adverse effects via immuno-modulation when provided in combination. When fed as a supplement, this combination promotes growth and feed utilization. It also improves the antioxidative state and non-specific immunity in O. niloticus when exposed to sub-lethal imidacloprid concentrations (Naiel et al. 2020). Similarly, dietary supplementation of zeolites, either alone or in conjunction with chitosan nanoparticles, also reduces the toxicity induced by imidacloprid exposure (Ismael et al. 2021).

Furthermore, heat stress is one of the critical causes of death in most aquatic organisms. It reduces animal productivity, damages vital organs (such as the liver), and may lead to sudden death (Yin et al. 2018). However, using nanoparticles such as Selenium (Se) NPs has been shown to preserve the hepatocytes in cold-water fish like rainbow trout. In mild heat stress, these nanoparticles have synergistic effects and activate the pathway that produces heat shock proteins (HSPs) in response, resulting in elevated levels of HSP expression. Thus, nanoparticles act as potential therapeutic agents by protecting the cells from heat damage (Sun et al. 2022).

Breeding and reproduction

Like other organisms on planet Earth, reproduction is crucial to the viability of the fish population. With the advancements in aquaculture practices, the number of aquatic species for domestication is increasing, and controlled reproduction plays a vital role in maintaining sustainability (Duarte et al. 2010; Pei et al. 2014). Controlling fish reproduction can be accomplished by using steroid hormones, but these compounds have an unfavorable effect on fish consumers (El-Greisy and El-Gamal 2012). Nevertheless, the potential benefits of nanotechnology are becoming more considerable in the reproduction and breeding of fish. Nanotechnology currently finds its applications in delivering various drugs, vaccines, genes, and hormones in fish to progress gonadal development, induce breeding, or enhance the reproductive output (Wu et al. 2020). Multiple applications of NPs in the realm of fish breeding and reproduction are listed out in the following Table 2. Many nanoparticles such as nano-chitosan, PLGA NPs, selenium NPs etc. have great role in reproductive success of fish. These NPs are supplemented directly through the feed, injection or immersion method. Few were also been conjugated with other substances for their efficient delivery into the fish (Sharma et al. 2014; Bhat et al. 2019; Kookaram et al. 2021; Hajiyeva et al. 2022a, 2022b).

Table 2 Potential uses of nanoparticles in aquaculture and fisheries
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Nano delivery systems in aquaculture

Substances such as drugs, genes, nutraceuticals, vaccines, etc., are delivered into the organism’s body by encapsulating with the nanoparticles, a process known as ‘Nano-encapsulation.’ It is a technique of enclosing materials using films, layers, or nano-dispersions on a nanometer scale. The resulting capsule provides a nanoscale barrier for the food, nutraceutical, or ingredient contents (Jafari 2017). Therefore, it makes the ingredients available more readily and accessible by loading them onto a food product (Veisi et al. 2021). Encapsulation ensures a site-specific, controlled release of hydrophobic (lipophilic) and hydrophilic (lipophobic) molecules into a food preparation system (Toniazzo et al. 2014). However, nanoparticles ensure a high potential to direct molecules to specific target organelles, hence having increased usage in drug delivery, illness screening, and tissue engineering (Mirza and Karim 2021). Recent studies have demonstrated that numerous bioactive compounds, including phenolics, essential oils, carotenoids, and vitamins, can be successfully encapsulated and distributed more efficiently in aquatic feeds by using nanostructures like nano-hydrogels and nanofibers generated from natural biopolymers (Muller and Keck 2004; Akbari-Alavijeh et al. 2020; Oliveira Lima et al. 2021). Mostly chitosan, a naturally occurring biodegradable polysaccharide, is used as encapsulating agent. Because of its non-toxic, biocompatible, and mucus-adherent nature, allowing an efficient drug delivery capacity (Alishahi et al. 2011; Vendramini et al. 2016).

Moreover, the free amine groups in chitosan allow a more robust cross-linking reaction, aiding a very efficient encapsulation process (Liu et al. 2014). Nano chitosan form has emerged as a preferred vector for delivering therapeutic agents and genetic material in aquaculture (Ji et al. 2015). Likewise, several nanoparticles were used in aquaculture to deliver various compounds efficiently.

Nano delivery of drugs

To be effective, a drug delivery system must regulate the rate at which the drug is released and transported to the target site of action (Mirza and Karim 2021). However, nano-encapsulation increases drug stability, regulates the interaction with the food matrix, and protects the drug from moisture and heat (Ubbink and Kruger 2006). Few hydro-soluble micronutrients, such as vitamin C, can be significantly delivered with increased stability and shelf life by using nano chitosan as a carrier in rainbow trout (Alishahi et al. 2011).

Oxytetracycline is one of the most widely used antibiotics in aquaculture. However, it accumulates ten times higher in zebrafish when delivered using synthetic iron oxide NPs than via water (Chemello et al. 2016). Whereas, Nano-chitosan-loaded clinoptilolite at a dose of 0.05 g/kg was reported to stimulate growth and strengthen the immune systems of rainbow trout (KhaniOushani et al. 2020). Similarly, when Thymbra spicata plant extract is loaded on chitosan NPs for carrying, it increases the extract’s efficacy. It enhances growth, blood parameters, immunity, and stress response in rainbow trout (Ghanbary et al. 2022).

Recently, a USA-based company, Bio Delivery Sciences International (BDSI), has developed a new drug delivery device, the Bioral® (a Nanocochleate Delivery System). Bioral® can encase a drug without chemically adhering to it, protecting it so that it can be taken orally instead of intravenous injection (Aklakur et al. 2015).

Nano delivery of vaccines

Vaccines stimulate the immune system to induce protection and immunity against pathogens (Sahdev et al. 2014). Vaccination is a proven, low-cost strategy that has gained widespread acceptance in aquaculture during the last two decades. However, nano vaccination is a novel approach for bulk immunization in the aquaculture industry (Assefa and Abunna 2018). Because traditional vaccines typically affect the whole body, whereas nano-vaccines target the specific area of the body where the illness or infection first appeared (Gheibi Hayat et al. 2019). Nano-vaccines protect antigens from degrading, stabilize medicinal substances such as peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids, and minimize vaccination dosages (Shahbazi and Santos 2015).

However, gene therapy involves altering the expression of a gene or influencing the biological properties of living cells and helps induce therapeutic effects (Eugene et al. 2001). For effective response to obtain, using the non-viral delivery methods would be more beneficial than the viral ones because of their more reliability and larger scale applicability (Yang et al. 2015). Since nanoparticles facilitate easy gene transfer and effective responses, they are more suitable for application in aquaculture. DNA vaccines delivered by the nanoparticle carriers such as chitosan and polylactide-co-glycolide acid (PLGA) can significantly protect against bacterial infections and some viral illnesses with vaccine-induced side effects (Rajesh Kumar et al. 2009).

In fish, nano chitosan tripolyphosphate were used for efficient delivery of DNA vaccines (Vimal et al. 2012). Because, chitosan NPs increases the efficacy of vaccines when administered in conjugation with DNA complexes made of lipids, proteins, and ligands (which drive the DNA complex to receptors on the surface of target cells and DNA into the nucleus) (Roy et al. 1997). A successful oral vaccination was reported in Asian sea bass (Lates calcarifer) using a nano-chitosan& DNA vaccine complex provided through feed, but the fish shown only a moderate resistance to experimental Vibrio anguillarum infection (Kumar et al. 2008). Whereas the oral vaccination in Atlantic salmon against Infectious Salmon Anaemia Virus (ISAV) using nano chitosan loaded with DNA encoding for the replicas of alphavirus as adjuvant and an inactivated ISAV showed more than 77% protection against the disease (Rivas-Aravena et al. 2015). However, high levels of protection against A. hydrophila are observed on supplying single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) loaded with DNA vaccine due their more robust immunological response than free vaccine in fish (Zhang et al. 2019; Gong et al. 2015; Liu et al. 2016). Furthermore, functionalized SWCNT loaded with a KHV ORF149 gene expression vector provides long-lasting and substantial protection to koi fish against a KHV challenge. Intramuscular administration of 10 µg of SWCNTs-p149 is the most effective treatment for eliciting maximum immune protection (Hu et al. 2020). Few modified nano-clay, such as chitosan functionalized halloysite nanotubes (HNTs), can be a carrier for whole-cell inactivated vaccines against streptococcus infection in tilapia, on altering their structure into a hollow and tubular shape used for oral vaccination. These HNTs provide higher vaccine bioavailability and improve vaccine loading efficacy and immunological response against disease (Pumchan et al. 2022).

According to a study, shrimp challenged with white spot syndrome virus have shown positive response to dietary supplementation of DNA vaccines encapsulated with nano chitosan (Rajeshkumar et al. 2009). The DNA–chitosan complex provided with appropriate ligands transport genes more effectively via receptor-mediated endocytosis than with chitosan used alone (Murata et al. 1997). In Penaeus monodon, on administrating dsRNA using a chitosan-dextran sulphate and silica nanoparticle complex as carrier vehicle suppresses the structural gene (p74) and thus helps in controlling the effect of Monodon baculovirus (MBV) (Ramesh Kumar et al. 2016). Similarly, Ramya et al. (2014) also reported that providing M. rosenbergii with an extra small virus antisense (XSVAS) gene of nodavirus encapsulated with chitosan nanoparticles in the DNA construct increases the survival tolerance against nodavirus. Therefore, compared to the synthetic vectors, using nanoparticles as a gene-delivery vehicle in vivo appears to be more advantageous (Rajeshkumar et al. 2009; Vimal et al. 2012; Ramya et al. 2014; Rivas-Aravena et al. 2015; Ramesh Kumar et al. 2016; Hu et al. 2020).

According to a report from the ETC group, the USDA is working on a fish vaccination technique that uses ultrasound to break open the nanocapsules containing short strands of DNA so that the fish can easily absorb the DNA. Through this, an effective immunological response can be induced to help in the mass vaccination of fish. Clear Springs Foods, a company in the United States, has tested this method on rainbow trout and is now selling it to the public (ETC 2003; Mongillo 2007).

Nano delivery of nutraceuticals

Encapsulating technologies are also widely used in the field of nutraceuticals. The term “nutraceutical” refers to any food or component of food apart from its nutritional value; it also provides extra health benefits and plays a crucial role in the disease-prevention (Brower 1998). Most nutraceuticals are administered orally because certain lipophilic compounds cannot be digested in the digestive tract and must be supplied via specialized carrier systems (Subramanian 2021). Developing nano-delivery technologies for these substances may address the obstacles of commercializing them in aquaculture. These nano-formulations of feed maintain the consistency and flavour of the feed more efficiently (FOE 2008).

Many products are currently in the market that utilizes advanced nutraceutical delivery systems. Some of these include Ubisol-AquaTM Delivery System Technology developed by an American company Zymes LLC (Limited Liability Company), the NovaSOL® Delivery System Technology developed by a German company AQUANOVA, and the Nano-sized Self-assembled Structured Liquids (NSSL) technology, developed by an Israeli company Nutralease (Agrifood market report 2010).

Nano-sensing devices in aquaculture and fisheries

Sensors are devices capable of detecting and measuring the presence of contaminants in a sample using receptors and transducers. In biosensors, the acceptor is a biological element (Huang et al. 2021).The use of nanostructures in biosensors gives rise to the term “Nano-biosensors”. These were characterized by a high degree of sample stability, contributing to their high efficiency and sensitivity levels (Huang et al. 2021). Nano-sensing devices are potentially used in fisheries and aquaculture to detect the occurrence of various contaminants like microbial populations, allergens, and chemicals in fish samples and water (ETC 2003; Marzuki et al. 2012; Yu et al. 2014; Teymouri and Shekarchizadeh 2022). According to a report from ETC (2003), NASA researchers developed a sensitive carbon nanotube-based biosensor that can detect minute amounts of bacteria, viruses, parasites, and heavy metals in water and food. Similarly, to detect the allergens (histamine) and toxins present in water and food products, Northwestern Engineering and Iowa State University researchers also developed a biosensor based on graphene nanoparticles.

Nevertheless, the nano biosensors are also helpful in determining the freshness of a fish sample. Several different compounds, amines, and poisons are detected. Due to its widespread usage as a preservative in fish transportation, formalin appears to pose the greatest threat to the safety of fish consumed by humans. According to a market survey conducted by Uddin et al. (2011) in Bangladesh, around 50% of total fish samples showed formalin contamination, with 70% being rohu (L. rohita) exclusively. However, a formaldehyde nano-biosensor was developed to solve this problem using an enzyme, formaldehyde dehydrogenase, and nanomaterials (carbon nanotubes, chitosan) to precisely detect this upcoming threat to human health. This sensor has a quick response time (5 s), a higher sensitivity (1–10 ppm), and can be used repeatedly (Marzuki et al. 2012).

The aqua drugs such as triphenylmethane dyes, crystal violet and malachite green, and the antibiotic furazolidone were once widely used in aquaculture due to their potential against many bacterial, fungal, and parasitic diseases. These chemicals are banned in many countries due to their genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and many other adverse effects; however, these are still used illegally in some parts of the world ( Olivera Conti et al. 2015; Srivastava et al. 2004). In this case, using nanosensors to detect these chemical compounds in fish samples or feed is very effective. The nano-sensitive detectors, such as Colorimetric biosensors, produce color gradients and visible color changes in response to antibiotic concentrations in aquatic settings or aquaculture. Because antibiotics like Tetracycline (TCs) have a high affinity for Fe (II) and Fe (III) and form complexes, Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been employed to construct colorimetric biosensors. When TCs are present in a solution, it produces a TCFe3O4 complex, facilitating H2O2 oxidation of 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to produce a dark visible solution. UV spectroscopy can quantify TCs and their derivatives in the medium with a detection limit of 12 to 48 nM (Wang et al. 2016).

Yu et al. (2014) have developed a sensor that is developed through incorporating Fe3O4/Ag hybrid NPs in SERS (Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering) substrates. Similarly, the residues of Crystal violet and malachite green present in fish samples were also traced by SERS using Silver -coated gold bimetallic nanoparticles as substrates (Pei et al. 2014). Moreover, to detect amines such as histamine and cadaverine that occurred in the fish samples, Hasanzadeh et al. (2013) have developed a sensor by employing Fe3O4 NPs along with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and a stable magnetic mobile crystalline material-41. More recently, Teymouri and Shekarchizadeh (2022) have developed a colorimetric indicator based on copper nanoparticles (CuNP’s) to detect volatile sulfur compounds in fish. The indicator’s noticeable color changes are highly correlated with the quality of the fish. Colors that indicate the freshness of fish are white for fresh fish, yellow indicates partially fresh, and brown indicates spoiled fish. In innovative packaging, this indicator can be utilized; it is a simple, low-cost, and valuable technique to monitor fish deterioration in real-time, with color changes visible to the human eye (Teymouri and Shekarchizadeh 2022).

Besides the analytes, nanosensors were also used in the sex determination of fish. Esmaeili et al. (2017) have demonstrated about gender determination of Arowana fish (Scleropages formosus) using a DNA biosensor. He developed a sensor with a nano-biocomposite comprising kappa-carrageenan-polypyrrole-gold nanoparticles (KC-PPyAuNPs), forming this sensor’s basis. The sensor is incorporated with a DNA probe sequence isolated from male arowana fish scales. However, when a test sample used is of male arowana fish, the hybridization between the probe and sample sequence occurs. In contrast, if the sample is of female arowana fish, the hybridization does not occur. Thus the gender of the fish can be detected using the nano-sensing device (Esmaeili et al. 2017).

Therefore, using Aquaculture nanotechnologies, for example, nano-porous structures to carry veterinary drugs directly and nanosensors for disease detection in aqua farming can influence aquatic animal health and well-being. Due to this reason, nanomaterials have proven to be very useful in many types of pond environments (Gustavo and Dominguez 2014).

Processing, preservation and quality control of aqua food products

Nanotechnology has many potential uses, including alternative conservation and packaging methods to ensure the quality and freshness of seafood by preventing the growth of harmful microorganisms (Can et al. 2011). Moreover, the rapid deterioration of fish’s sensory qualities, such as color and flavor, can be delayed using nanostructures such as nanoparticles, nano-emulsions, and nanofibers (Chellaram et al. 2014; Ozogul et al. 2017; Rather et al. 2021; Handy et al. 2023). The nano-emulsions help in the effective reduction of microbial growth and also improve the organoleptic qualities in fish fillets (Ozogul et al. 2017). Similarly, when applied on the outer layer of fish, nanofibers are shown to have antimicrobial properties. They could be a novel method for preventing the spread of bacteria in fish products (Perreault et al. 2015). Moreover, few applications of nano sensors related to fish processing were also discussed in the above Sect. 2.3.

For example, Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) mince fortified with zinc oxide nanoparticles has a significant antimicrobial effect and raises dietary Zn requirement during storage at 4 ± 1 °C for 18 days. Therefore, adding zinc to tilapia mince is not only a beneficial food fortification strategy for preventing zinc deficiency but also improves the shelf life of the mince (Pati et al. 2022). Similarly, Wang et al. (2014) have demonstrated using chitosan nanoparticles for efficient shrimp quality retention during storage at 4 °C. They observed chitosan nanoparticles have improved the TVB-N levels, K values, TVC, hardness, and springiness of post-harvest shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. Chitosan (CH) also exhibits antimicrobial activity in shrimp; however, its large particle size slows its penetration rate into shrimp muscle tissues.

According to a study, vacuum tumbling with sonicated and ultra-sheared chitosan nanoparticle solution could prevent shrimp from spoiling due to microbial proliferation. Because of their small size, these are more effective at penetrating shrimp muscle during refrigerated storage. Thus, it helps preserve physicochemical properties by reducing aerobic plate counts and lipid oxidation during frozen storage (Chouljenko et al. 2016, 2017). Also, the consumers and producers would benefit from maintaining the quality of shrimp intact throughout the storage period and potentially extending the product’s shelf life with this method (Chouljenko et al. 2017). Nanoparticles are having only a minimal applications in post-harvest technology; hence, more investigation of their applications in this area is required.

Nano tracing systems in aquaculture and fisheries

At each stage of the seafood supply chain, it is often required to use trustworthy technologies to validate species identity because the raw species are no longer identifiable by simple ‘morphology-based’ inspection (Maggioni et al. 2020). Nano tagging and nano barcoding were employed to trace a product or to monitor aquatic organisms’ metabolism, swimming patterns, and feeding habits. Likewise, a Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) chip contains an identifying code fused with a nanoscale component and carries information. The code can be scanned from a distance and included in the product to identify anything automatically. However, to encode the data, a metallic stripe with nanoparticles embedded in it is striped with different patterns, thus creating a “nano-barcode” (Rather et al. 2011). Nano barcoding helps to keep an eye on where the aqua product is coming from and where it is going, all the way to your customers’ doors. When used in conjunction with color-coded probes and synthetic DNA, a nano-barcode device could also identify infections and monitor changes in temperature, leakage, and other factors that affect product quality (Rather et al. 2011).

Food product substitutions can be quickly and easily identified using a combination of DNA-based and nano-biotechnology methods. In recent times, Valentini et al. (2017) devised an efficient calorimetric-based method to detect adulteration and substitution in high-priced fish and spices called “Nano-Tracer”. DNA barcoding and nanoparticle-based naked-eye detection together form the basis of this system (Valentini et al. 2017). It is also applied successfully to authenticate commercially available cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) (Maggioni et al. 2020). However, Nano-Tracer enables a simple, rapid, inexpensive (less than 1€ each test), and analytically uncomplicated molecular tracing of food. Therefore, researchers suggest that the method could be used for various seafood and other foods (Valentini et al. 2017; Maggioni et al. 2020).

Nano-remediation for aquatic environment management

Rapid industrialization, urbanization, advances in agricultural methods, and economic development in the last few decades have all put significant strain on the world’s water resources and environment (Alcamo et al. 2017); consequently, the present unconventional water sources are frequently contaminated with a wide range of pollutants (Bora and Dutta 2014). However, nano-remediation is a cutting-edge cleanup method that makes use of nanomaterials. It provides many novel solutions for rapidly and effectively removing pollutants from a contaminated environment (Das et al. 2019). Many studies have reported on the remediation of aquatic systems using various nano adsorbents. It is also expected that nano adsorbents will play significant roles in maintaining the aquatic environment because of their ability to effectively remove any types of pollutants from contaminated water while also minimizing the formation of secondary waste using fewer resources (Kurniawan et al. 2012). For example, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are highly efficient at removing inorganic and organic pollutants from water (Gupta and Saleh 2013). Inorganic pollutants like lead, Pb (II), and cadmium, Cd (II) are efficiently removed from water by using Fe3O4/CSNPs, a nanoparticle composite of magnetite and chitosan (Fan et al. 2017). However, sulfonated magnetic NPs are also highly effective at adsorbing Pb (II) and Cd (II) due to their active Sulphur group, demonstrating a 99% adsorption rate within 24 h of contact (Chen et al. 2017). Similarly, arsenic could be removed from water using NPs made of synthetic cobalt and manganese ferrite nanoparticles (Martinez-Vargas et al. 2017).

Organic pollutants like ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates are efficiently removed by using a combination of zeolite and iron-containing compounds, along with a small amount of activated carbon or alumina nanomaterials, which could be employed in aquaculture to maintain aerobic and anaerobic biofilms (Gillman 2006). Also, iron nanoparticles can eliminate chemicals like trichloroethane, C2Cl2, dioxins, and PCBs from water (Duke et al. 2013).

However, the major problem in aquaculture is eutrophication, which occurs when phosphorous loads are increased and promotes the expansion of algal blooms (Sarkar et al. 2022). For removing phosphates from the water and inhibiting algae development, a lanthanum-based chemical at a 40 nm particle size can be used (Mongillo et al. 2007; Rather et al. 2011; Sarkar et al. 2022). Based on this solution, “Altair Nanotechnologies (Nevada, USA)” has developed a water-purifying product called “Nano-check” for use in fish ponds to reduce eutrophication caused by algal blooms (Rather et al. 2011; Kumar et al. 2019). Nonetheless, developing a nanoscale delivery of weedicides and soil-wetting agents would be effective, particularly for aquatic weed management in large water bodies and mitigating climate change’s effects and pollution on aquatic ecosystems.

Consequences of nanotechnology (nano toxicity)

Besides contributing significantly to the development and success of aquaculture and fisheries, there are mounting evidences that nanotechnology-based materials and products have devastating effects on both human and environmental health (Shah and Mraz 2019). Nanoparticles enter the aquatic environment through industrial release, dumping wastewater treatment effluents, and soil surface runoff. In the aquatic system, they undergo aggregation and sedimentation with other suspended particulate matter, organic materials, and colloids in the water (Rocha et al. 2015). However, when NPs mixed with other substances in water, they are more likely to become entangled with other solids rather than distributed in aqueous suspensions (Grillo et al. 2015). The degree of aggregation of NPs in water is influenced by the particle parameters such as size, type, and surface area and the aquatic system variables such as ionic strength, pH, and dissolved organic carbon content (Baker et al. 2014). These nanoparticle aggregates show harmful effects on the aquatic flora and fauna.

In a few studies, aquatic animals exposed to NPs have been shown to suffer from adverse effects such as DNA damage and mortality, as well as oxidative stress and growth reduction (Baker et al. 2014; Grillo et al. 2015; Rocha et al. 2015). Due to their toxicity, some nanoparticles, such as Carbon nanotubes (CNT), cause physical and oxidative stress in the organism’s body. It has also been shown that CNT exposure adversely affected marine species’ larvae (Kwoket al. 2010). In several freshwater crab species, carbon nanotubes and their metabolites have been linked to an increased risk of death (Khalid et al. 2016).

Many studies have found that nanoparticles have a broad spectrum of toxic effects on aquatic microbes. When entered into an aquatic system, engineered nanomaterials, even at very low concentration can disrupt the cell membranes and destroy the aquatic bacteria (Tong et al. 2015; Li et al. 2017) for example: ZnO-Nps and TiO2-NPs at a concentrations of 25 and 10 mg/L respectively can adversely affect aquatic bacteria (Tong et al. 2015). The direct interaction with ZnO-NPs is detrimental to the growth phase of algae. The half maximal effective concentration (EC50) of nano ZnO particles is very low about 3.66–4.14 and 0.96–1.57 mg Zn/L for green microalgae and diatoms respectively (Li et al. 2017). Despite the fact that, these studies are carried out at lab level only. In contrast, in vivo, the aquatic species may expose to nanotoxicity for an extended period in their natural environments and experience various deleterious effects of nanoparticles on aquatic life (Table 3) (Sarkar et al. 2022). NPs show many harmful effects, such as inhibition of Na+/K+ ATPase, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity, tissue alterations, body pigmentation, brain damage, behavioral changes in fish in aquatic organisms, etc. (Farmen et al. 2012; Cimbaluk et al. 2018; Forouhar Vajargah et al. 2019; Kakakhel et al. 2021; Aziz and Abdullah 2023). Nonetheless, nanomaterials must be investigated for their life cycle and shelf-life to evaluate potential health and environmental hazards such as exposure, uptake, accumulation, release, and deposition, to make nanotechnology sustainable and used for more applications (Handy 2012).

Table 3 Adverse effects of nanoparticles on aquatic organisms
Full size table

Conclusion

Based on the above scenario, nanotechnology has positive and negative impacts on aquaculture and fisheries. The nanoparticles are beneficial in improving the growth and health of aquatic organisms and also help in delivering various immunity-boosting substances such as medicines, vaccines, and many other nutraceuticals. The dietary supplementation of nanoparticles is highly recommended to alleviate multiple negative impacts of climate change on aquatic animals. Although nanotechnology is enhancing aquatic production by improving the welfare of culture species, somehow, there is a lack of efficient application of nanoparticles at the field level.

Aside from these benefits, using nanoparticles that exceed a specific dose limit may also harm aquatic animals and human life. However, the direct assessment of nanoparticles in fish tissues can’t be performed using conventional methods. So, it is essential to apply advanced techniques to identify and quantify the nanomaterials’ residues in the fish tissue after utilizing them in an application to ascertain how harmful they are. Moreover, the toxicity caused by metal nanoparticles in aquatic ecosystems has become a significant issue of concern in recent years. Direct or indirect release of wastewater from industries, agriculture runoff water, and inefficient removal of nanoparticles in the wastewater treatment plant system (WWTPs) into the surrounding water bodies leads to this Nano-toxicity.

Therefore, more toxicological research needs to be conducted for better understanding of how the nanoparticles behave in aquatic environments and their interactions with one another and living organisms. Furthermore, standard rules and regulations are necessary for regulated production, applications, and safe disposal of nanoparticles. Green biosynthesized nanoparticles have recently become more popular because of their enhanced biodegradability than metal nanoparticles. Green synthesis of nanoparticles forms an excellent alternative in reducing the risk to aquatic animals. Use the nanoparticles only for the actual problem raised. Limiting the excessive inclusion of nanoparticles in food, medications, and cosmetics and controlling industrial effluents’ release into natural systems are mitigation approaches to reduce the nontoxicity.