Introduction

The world’s population is increasing with each passing day and could reach approximately nine billion in 2050 (Kumar et al. 2023; United Nations 2022). Due to such an escalating population, food security has become a major issue worldwide (Daniel et al. 2022). As a result, there is an increase in food demand as the population is growing (Korican et al. 2022). The available resources for protein-based food are meat, cereal, beans, and dairy products (FAO STAT 2022; Fanzo et al. 2013). In this regard, livestock plays a crucial role in providing a protein-rich diet in the form of beef and mutton.

However, excessive consumption of meat and meat products could also lead to health problems like obesity and cardiovascular disorders, and the issues mainly arose due to the high proportion of lipids in the meat (Gonzalez et al. 2020). Moreover, the intensification of livestock requires a lot of care, time, shelter, and much more (Michalk et al. 2019; Benton et al. 2018; Rivera-Ferre et al. 2016; Fraser 2005). Meanwhile, they used to be a reason for the transmission of diseases from animals to humans, as more than 60% of pathogens are zoonotic in origin (Rahman et al. 2020).

At the same time, preferences for chicken meat became highly demanding, regardless of its price and impact on human life (Jayaraman et al. 2013). Its intensive growth method has several hazardous impacts on humans and the environment, e.g., poultry waste, litter, and manure (Grzinic et al. 2023). On the other hand, the nutritional quality of crops is being threatened due to climatic changes and pest outbreaks (Zhu et al. 2022).

Therefore, hunger and malnutrition have become a great challenge in the world. Keeping that in view, the current pace of development does not seem to eradicate hunger by 2050 (Ramani 2023). In this regard, we need some alternative approaches to overcome malnutrition and food demand. Aquaculture is a field that can provide an essential component of protein. It is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fishes, shrimps, mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic plants. It has become the fastest food-producing sector in the world (FAO 2018, 2020; Ritchie and Roser 2017; FAO 2016a, b). Its production is expected to reach approximately 140 Mt by 2050 (Waite et al. 2014; Sysoenko and Kerimova 2019).

It has become a promising field across the world that provides economic benefits and conserves food security, worldwide (Golden et al. 2021; Editorial 2021; Gui et al. 2018; Han et al. 2018; FAO 2020; Valenti et al. 2018). In aquaculture, fish is a major component that is an essential source of nutrients and micronutrients, which could play a vital role in human nutrition and food security.

Moreover, it is the source of health-promoting omega-3 and essential minerals like zinc, iron, calcium, phosphorus, iodine, and vitamins (Hicks et al. 2019; Golden et al. 2016; Thilsted et al. 2016). Freshwater fishes such as Labeo rohita, Catla catla, and Chinese major carps are important sources of nutrients and escalation in protein, which are solely obtained from aquaculture (Youn et al. 2014; Halpern et al. 2019).

A unique flesh quality, rapid growth performance, and short reproductive cycle make them strongly adaptable to the environment (Bai JunJie and Li ShengJie 2019). In comparison with other animal-based protein sources, it is cheaper and easily available everywhere, and its production in aquaculture is an efficient way to yield high-quality proteins for mankind (Ali et al. 2021; Khalil et al. 2021; Maulu et al. 2021).

Furthermore, adding fish to a regular diet could reduce the risk of life-threatening diseases by 6 to 14% as compared to a standard flesh-based diet and also reduce type II diabetes by 25%, cardiovascular disorder by 20%, and cancer effectively being reduced by a rate of 12% (Bezbaruah and Deka 2021; Zhao et al. 2016; Tilman and Clark 2014). In an era of severe malnutrition, fishes provide nutrients to fight against malnutrition (Hicks et al. 2019).

However, there are great challenges to fish in the aquatic environment, most importantly pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, toxins, and pesticides which can impair their immunity and cause diseases that affect the livelihood of farmers and damage food security (Parlapani et al. 2023; Leung and Bates 2013; Rymuszka and Siwicki 2004). In fish aquaculture, the most common solutions are the use of antibiotics, disinfectants, and pesticides for the treatment of diseases. Antibiotics have been used for so many years to fight against pathogens (Salma et al. 2022; Cabello 2006; Rico and Van den Brink 2014). However, uncontrolled and unnecessary use of antibiotics causes bacterial resistance, and pathogens are no longer sensitive to them. Meanwhile, extreme uses have led to the resistance of bacterial, fungal, and viral strains (Mondal and Thomas 2022; FDA, 2020; Zaman et al. 2017; Arestrup 2005; Hajipour et al. 2012; Pelgrift and Friedman 2013; Cabello 2006). Furthermore, several studies have shown that antibiotics accumulate in the aquatic environment leading to residue buildup in water and sediment with unpleasant effects on fish (Lulijwa and Kajobe 2018; Chen et al. 2018). Therefore, there is a need for alternative methods for proficient detection of disease-causing pathogens and their control (Nasr-Eldahan et al. 2021; Ninawe et al. 2016).

In that instance, there is an emerging field of science known as nanotechnology which synthesizes nanomaterial called nanoparticles, and their size ranges from 1 to 100 nm (Ghelani and Faisal 2022; Dubchak et al. 2010). Nanoparticles have wide applications in the field of aquaculture. With the characteristics of being antibacterial and anti-fungal, particles are designed in such a way that they are attracted by diseased cells, allowing them to direct treatment of the defective cells (Matatkova et al. 2022; Leela and Vivekanandan 2008). It could lead to the development of new technologies for the management of medications and production of vaccines, promising the defense of fish against pathogenic microbes (Nasr-Eldahan et al. 2021).

An alternate strategy for controlling disease outbreaks has become possible through the antibacterial properties of metal nanoparticles (NPs), such as silver NPs, gold NPs, and zinc oxide NPs, against numerous fish diseases (Saleh et al. 2016). Silver nanoparticles are considered to be a potent antimicrobial agent that effectively fights against bacteria (Bruna et al. 2021). Broad-spectrum antibacterial properties, potent sterilization, ease of preparation, minimal environmental impact, and resistance to drug resistance are some of the benefits of using silver nanoparticles. It was extensively employed in many different products as an antimicrobial material (Hu et al. 2019).

Fish diseases

A major factor in fish mortality, particularly in juvenile fish, is disease. Fish diseases can be classified as either pathogenic or non-pathogenic based on how contagious they are. The other one is connected to inadequate water quality, starvation, etc. Gas bubble diseases are a representation of non-infectious diseases because of extensive aeration, nutritional illnesses brought on by a lack of specific nutrients (such as vitamins and minerals), diseases brought on by industrial and agricultural pollutants, and neo-plastics and genetic abnormalities an abnormal growth to various organs that causes the organ to lose their structure and function (El-Sayed Ali et al. 2014a, b, 2017; Idowu et al. 2017).

Another kind of disease, called a pathogenic disease, is extremely lethal since its fish-to-fish spread which results in high fatality rates. Infectious diseases can be classified as fungal, parasitic, or bacterial (the most common types are Aeromonas hydrophila, Vibrio spp., Streptococcus spp., and Pseudomonas spp.). Fish have both non-specific and specific defenses against illness. The body has an adaptation of immune responses that recognizes certain pathogens and responds to them (Chaplin 2010).

Disease treatment in fish

Antibiotics

Antibiotics can be synthetic or natural substances that are being used as antibacterial drugs to either stop the growth or kill bacteria (Schar et al. 2020; Patel et al. 2019; Okoye et al. 2022; Lozano et al. 2017; Lulijwa et al. 2020). In aquaculture, the most commonly used antibiotics are sulfadiazine, forfenicol, and oxytetracycline (Lulijwa et al. 2020; Sun et al. 2020).

Antibiotics, known as agents that inhibit bacterial growth, are defined as synthetic substances that can either eradicate or impede the growth of pathogenic microorganisms (Romero et al. 2012). Both artificial and natural resources may be their sources, but they need to be non-toxic to the host to utilize as a chemotherapeutic substance to treat bacterial diseases. Because there are so many bacterial diseases in aquaculture, the use of antibiotics is expanding (Defoirdt et al. 2007).

Mixing the antibiotic drug with aquaculture feed is the most popular method of administering antibiotics in aquaculture. Different paths include injectable and pond sprinkling as methods of administering antibiotics (Liu et al. 2017). Farmers use antibiotics unintentionally without knowing the real, precise causes of fish disease (Rahman et al. 2021). When using antibiotics in excessive amounts, there are a lot of drawbacks such as when antibiotics are added to feed, it settles in the water, and fish can ingest it, which increases biological transport in hydrocarbons. In aquaculture, antibiotics are frequently used, but not all bacteria respond to them; in fact, some bacteria that were initially susceptible to an antibiotic eventually develop resistance to it (Mondal and Thomas 2022). Animal and human sources are the entry points for antibiotic-resistant bacteria into aquatic environments. Water-based microorganisms that contain these bacteria can inherit their genes for resistance (Kraemer et al. 2019).

The persistence of antibiotic buildup in the aquatic environments resulted in the emergence of antimicrobial resistance genes (Richardson and Kimura 2019; Saima et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2021). The widespread use of antibiotics in both medical treatments for humans and animals, along with their numerous other uses, has made them one of the most significant categories of emerging contaminants endurance over time in the environment (Sodhi et al. 2021; Okoye et al. 2022).

Research has confirmed that fish do not effectively metabolize antibiotics (Sun et al. 2020). Almost 75% of the antibiotics that are given to fish are thought to be excreted into the environment, ultimately (Burridge et al. 2010). Additionally, several studies have demonstrated that antibiotics build up in aquatic environments, causing residue to accumulate in water and sediment and having an unpleasant effect on fish (Lulijwa and Kajobe 2018; Chen et al. 2018).

Antibiotic remains in aquatic products have the potential to be directly harmful to consumer health on a systemic level influencing the intricate microflora that live in the human digestive system, possibly having negative effects. These chemical treatments come with a hefty price tag, intense stimulation, poor efficacy, and a host of negative side effects (Monteiro et al. 2018; Burridge et al. 2010).

Fisheries-related antibiotic-resistant bacteria

For many years, antibiotics have been used for the treatment of bacterial diseases. However, antibiotic-resistant bacteria can arise as a result of the uncontrolled and excessive use of antibiotics (Mondal and Thomas 2022). An investigation into the use of antibiotics in fish farms across 25 countries was carried out. It was discovered that the most commonly used antibiotic in fish farming is tetracycline. The emergence of bacteria resistant to antibiotics and the overuse of antibiotics in aquaculture are closely related. There is a rise in the number of resistant bacteria, including those that are methicillin-resistant. There have been reports of Staphylococcus aureus and its multiple drug-resistant varieties (Tusevljak et al. 2013; Atyah et al. 2010).

Several Aeromonas hydrophila isolates from tilapia in culture exhibited resistance to broad-spectrum antibiotics, including erythromycin, streptomycin, and tetracycline (Son et al. 1997). Many bacteria were found to be resistant to antibiotics like Photobacterium damselae, Aeromonas salmonicida, Yersinia ruckeri, Pfiesteria piscicida, Vibrio, Listeria, Pseudomonas, and Edwardsiella (Sørum 2008; Swain et al. 2014). A number of studies also identified enterococci-resistant antibiotics found in the sediments fish farm which highlights the risk that these types of bacteria can spread infections to humans as well.

Consequently, the existence of these bacteria in fish farms is a significant issue of public health concern (Di Cesare et al. 2012). Antibiotics are typically given to every species of the population in aquaculture, including healthy, sick, and carrier individuals. Antibiotics are thus frequently overused and misused in aquaculture across many nations (Santos and Ramos 2018).

Furthermore, overuse of antibiotics in aquaculture may hasten the development of resistance in the cultured fish and aquaculture environment. Moreover, eating fish that have been antibiotic-treated may harm people’s health (Limbu et al. 2021). Antibiotic use in aquaculture has the potential to contaminate farmed organisms and culture environments in a variety of ways, with feed being one of the most crucial sources of contamination (Li et al. 2021).

Probiotics

Probiotics are one or more beneficial microorganisms that can withstand the bile and acid in the digestive tract and have a positive impact on the host (Kothari et al. 2019).

The two most powerful probiotic bacteria are thought to be found in the digestive tract, L. acidophilus and B. subtilis, which were isolated from grass carp and silver carp (Irianto and Austin 2002). When used as a growth promoter to enhance the growth of cultured fishes in aquaculture, these probiotics have positive effects like enhanced growth, improvement of nutrient digestion improvement of water quality, and resilience to stress (Aydın and Çek-Yalnız 2019). Fig. 1 modified from Chauhan and Singh illustrates the improved growth in fish.

Fig. 1
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Applications of probiotics in aquaculture and improved fish growth

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Despite their many positive aspects, probiotics have the following drawbacks. Histamine is a chemical of the immune system that typically secretes when it detects any threat, and certain strains have the ability to raise histamine levels. When produced in large quantities, it increases blood flow in the affected area resulting in redness and swelling (Branco et al. 2018).

An increase in probiotic bacteria in the body can be toxic to the bacteria and result in the failure of organs. They also penetrate the intestinal mucosa and reach vital organs via the bloodstream, where they cause localized or systemic infections (Kothari et al. 2019). In aquaculture, many bacterial diseases cannot be treated with antimicrobials only; therefore, another treatment is being used known as a vaccine (Dadar et al. 2016).

Vaccines

Vaccines can be classified as genetically modified, DNA recombinant, vector synthetic peptide, killed, attenuated, or sub-united vaccines. Immunization lowers the need for medications, e.g., antibiotics in aquaculture, and lessens the likelihood of medication resistance (Plant and Lapatra 2011). Through immune system activation, vaccination is the most crucial and most effective method for the prevention and management of fish-related infectious diseases (Sahdev et al. 2014; Mohd-Aris et al. 2019).

In aquaculture, vaccinations have proven to be an essential defensive mechanism against microbes, shielding hosts from infections caused by pathogens (Shah and Mraz 2020a, b). Vaccination has been essential to the success of fish farming and is crucial to large-scale commercial aquaculture (FAO 2018). Fish vaccinations have emerged as a well-recognized, economical means of preventing several pathogenic infections in the aquaculture industry for many years (Assefa and Abunna 2018).

However, due to their short half-lives, the majority of administered vaccines are stored and preserved in suspension form at low temperatures and are typically injected into blood systems. These obstructions have decreased the likelihood that vaccines would be widely useful, especially in some fin and shellfish. An approaching mass immunization technique in aquaculture is called nanovaccine through nanotechnology (Assefa and Abunna 2018).

Aquaculture and nanotechnology

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is a newly developing branch of science that produces nanomaterials, or nanoparticles, whose size ranges from 1–100 nm (Ghelani and Faisal 2022: Matteucci et al. 2018; Dubchak et al. 2010). Because of their antibacterial and anti-fungal properties, nano-particulates are highly useful in the aquaculture industry. Their unique design attracts diseased cells, enabling the treatment of those cells directly (Matatkova et al. 2022).

Effective drug delivery, vaccine development, and fish nutrition are all impacted by nanotechnology as mentioned in Fig. 2 modified from Shah and Mraz’s (2020a, b) work. Using biological and nanotechnology together materials draws more attention to innovative nanoparticles that are produced effectively and affordably (Malhotra et al. 2020; Malhotra et al. 2020; Kakakhel et al. 2021).

Fig. 2
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Applications of nanotechnology in aquaculture

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It might lead to the creation of novel technologies for the control of medications and the creation of vaccines, protecting fisheries resources from pathogenic microbes (Nasr-Eldahan et al. 2021). Following are some of the methods that are being used in fisheries and aquaculture to overcome disease burden.

Nanotechnology and disease management

Silver nanoparticles

All forms of silver have historically been used either independently or in combination with other technologies as an antimicrobial agent. Silver NPs are demonstrated as nanomaterials that have all of their dimensions falling between 1 and 100 nm.

Compared to silver bulk, these have illustrated higher surface area-to-volume ratio, greater capacity, and capability. This material shows distinctive catalytic, electrical, and optical qualities, which have prompted research and product development for targeted medication delivery, diagnosis, detection, and imaging (Yaqoob et al. 2020; Silva et al. 2017) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
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Different types of nanoparticles and their function

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These NPs have shown very strong antibacterial action against various strains of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Cavassin et al. 2015). Silver nanoparticles have potential antibacterial qualities against a variety of microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses (Rathi Sre et al. 2015).

These are known to be effective antimicrobial agents against multi-drug-resistant bacteria, including vancomycin- and methicillin-resistant bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, ampicillin-resistant species Escherichia coli, and erythromycin-resistant species Streptococcus pyogens (Bose and Chatterjee 2016). Due to a specific action, these nanoparticles begin to perform their functions at the cellular and molecular level once it has reached their target location (Aydın and Barbas 2020).

According to a number of studies, microbe cellular machinery primarily aids in the assembly of the most stable AgNPs. Silver cations are responsible for the bactericidal activity of AgNPs because they have the ability to bind with the thiol group on bacterial proteins in a specific way, disrupt their physiological activities, and cause their necrobiosis. AgNPs use a Trojan horse mechanism to kill bacteria. First, they bind to the cell surface, which changes penetration and impairs respiration. Next, they penetrate the cell barrier and release metallic silver ions into the cell (Burdușel et al. 2018). Because of their tiny size, which makes them easy to penetrate microbial cell walls, they are also being used in the food industry for packaging to prevent pathogens from destroying food products (Siddiqi et al. 2018).

Now, silver is widely being used as an antibacterial, antiviral, antimycotic, and chemotherapeutic agent in a variety of pharmaceutical fields (Vadlapudi and Amanchy 2017). Silver is also useful in textile, cosmetic, medical, and even household appliances. Whether in combined, ionic, colloidal, or the form of nanoparticle, silver can function as a medication. It has also shown promise in the treatment of several diseases, such as inflammation, cancer, and malaria, primarily in the uterine region (Venkatesan et al. 2016).

Antibacterial activity

AgNPs have an effective antibacterial assay that occurs after reactive oxygen species (ROS) are present and Ag ions disperse. The deactivation of a bacterial cell protein and genetic material results in bacterial death (Singh et al. 2020). There are three ways in which silver influences microorganisms. One technique is the penetration of bacterial cell walls by silver cations, which then react with peptidoglycans (Sim et al. 2018).

The second mechanism by which silver nanoparticles exhibit antibacterial activity is oxidative stress, which is brought on by the particles’ binding to a bacterial cell and subsequent release of ions (Tang and Zheng 2018).

Membrane permeability may be considerably impacted by the binding of silver nanoparticles to membrane proteins. Cell contents may seep out as a result, moving uncontrollably across the cytoplasmic membrane. AgNPs that attach to membrane proteins can alter phosphate ion uptake and release, which can interfere with energy production and the respiratory chain. When AgNPs enter the cell, they may attach themselves to intracellular components like DNA, lipids, and proteins, which inhibit transcription (Tang and Zheng 2018).

They cause damage to protein synthesis and harm DNA (Mathur et al. 2018). Reactive oxygen species have the potential to significantly influence DNA modification and disruption of cell membranes. The constant release of silver ions by AgNPs is thought to be the mechanism by which microorganisms are destroyed (Yin et al. 2020). Consequently, AgNP bactericidal activity results from their action on the bacterial cell, which causes cell death as demonstrated in Fig. 4 modified from Bury et al.’s (1999), Morones et al.’s (2005), and Summer et al.’s (2024) work.

Fig. 4
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Mechanism of silver nanoparticles in bacterial cell disruption

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Copper nanoparticles

Copper nanoparticles have important optical and catalytic qualities, high surface area-to-volume ratio, and biocidal characteristics among their many other physical and chemical characteristics (Dutta et al. 2018; Borda et al. 2018; Levchenko and Reisfeld 2017; Kruk et al. 2015). For many fish species, copper is a crucial micro-nutrient and bioactive trace metal in aquatic environments (Zitoun 2019).

Besides, broad-spectrum antibacterial activity is demonstrated by copper (Ingle et al. 2014; Lemire et al. 2013). Copper’s high surface-to-volume ratio at the nano-scale makes it toxic and has stronger antibacterial properties than its bulk counterpart (Ermini and Voliani 2021; Salah et al. 2021; Sankar et al. 2014).

It is also stated that many harmful microorganisms were destroyed on surfaces with no less than 55–70% copper. About 300 copper-containing amalgams were chosen by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to be used as antimicrobial operators, effectively combating the growth of microorganisms that cause serious diseases.

According to research, the mechanism of copper nanoparticles against a variety of pathogens is due to the antibacterial effect that damages bacterial cell membranes, cytoplasmic elements, and intracellular enzymes, disrupts proteins and ions from the cells, and prevents the bacteria from growing (Vincent et al. 2016). Therefore, CuNPs and their complexes are highly recommended in nanomedicine as an antibacterial, antiviral, and anti-fouling agent (Ermini and Voliani 2021).

Copper NPs were discovered to have a variety of harmful effects on bacterial cells, including the production of ROS (reactive oxygen species), protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation, and DNA damage (Chatterjee et al. 2014). Another way that CuNPs react against bacteria is by reducing copper through a Fenton-like process that generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) and causes enzymatic- and non-enzymatic-mediated oxidative damage, resulting in cell death (Salah et al. 2021). CuNPs have been shown in numerous investigations to be able to diffuse or endocytose across cell membranes and accumulate in intracellular compartments like the nucleus and mitochondria (Wang et al. 2015; Srikanth et al. 2016).

Zinc nanoparticles

ZnNPs also demonstrated strong antibacterial activity against pathogenic bacteria and were efficient in lowering bacterial load in fish vital tissues, e.g., skin, intestine, and muscles (El-Saadony et al. 2021). Fish with diets high in zinc have immunity from infectious pathogens, and zinc prevents fish from becoming infected with bacteria because it is essential for antibacterial activity (Kumar et al. 2019). A mechanism of bacterial cell disruption by zinc nanoparticles is mentioned in Fig. 5 (Gao et al. 2019a, b; Mohd Yusof et al. 2020).

Fig. 5
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Mechanism of antibacterial potential of Zinc nanoparticles

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Nanotechnology and pond water treatment

Pond water treatment via AgNPs

Water contaminated with pollutants is constantly being added to aquaculture and other water bodies (Patel et al. 2019). The most common method for enhancing water quality for a long time was to regularly replace the freshwater in ponds with new fresh water. Nonetheless, the daily water volume required for small- to medium-sized aquaculture systems might amount to several hundred cubic meters (Borja 2002). Water pollution and toxicity levels are still difficult to detect and take a long time to process (Altenburger et al. 2019).

In this respect, nanotechnology is playing an important role and provides innovative methods for cleaning and treating water to lower organic compounds, inorganic nutrients, and harmful bacteria disinfection using silver bactericidal nanoparticles that eliminate the pollutants and organic materials by applying membranes constructed with compounds containing nanoparticles in the aquaculture industry. The most significant function of silver nanoparticles is to clean the water in fish habitats and the surroundings (Willson and Halupka 1995; Noriega-Treviño et al. 2012). Applications of nanoparticles in aquaculture include the improvement of water quality, nutrition for aquatic animals, medication delivery, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases (Byrd et al. 2021).

The management of fish health emerged as another difficult issue. The effects of climate change and declining environmental quality have caused a marked increase in pathogens and diseases in aquaculture. There are still many infectious diseases that have no known cures, like fin and gill rot and epizootic disease known as epizootic ulcerative syndrome, and some that even become irreversibly damaged when treated with antibiotics. The outbreak of white spot disease has hampered the profitable success of cultured Penaeus monodon (Zhang et al. 2016).

In this regard, observation showed that the highest concentrations of Ag nanoparticles show the highest bactericidal efficiencies against many fish farm bacterial pathogens after 2-h contact time at the dose 0.1, 0.05, and 0.01 mg/L silver nanoparticles which was adequate to inhibit 85.33%, 71.93%, and 62.19% of total bacterial count in fish pond water (Dosoky et al. 2015). Silver nanoparticles with their advanced cleaning system and specialized plates clean every drop of water in all directions that the water moves.

Water quality can be enhanced by silver nanoparticles, and aquaculture practices require larger amounts of water; this source of intense intervention requires a higher quality of water, and the world is getting less and less of it every day. Aquaculture practices have a direct impact on the environment due to their intensive intervention, as they require larger quantities of water, which is becoming increasingly scarce globally.

Furthermore, during the production of the life forms, more waste was produced than was needed for fish food, excretion products, feces, chemical products, and antibiotics. This waste was then released into the environment surrounding these production farms (Vanni and Craig 1997). Many of the discharges are characterized by a high organic load from left-over feeds, pesticides, and human wastes which possibly impact the physico-chemical parameters of the farm water and also add anthropogenic materials (Coldebella et al. 2017).

Additionally, toxic heavy metals in water that pose a major threat to fish life are removed using silver nanoparticles. The heavy metals are bound by these nanoparticles and eliminated in a targeted concentration. Heavy metals and environmental contaminants can be readily eliminated with great concern using an integrated approach by using silver-based nanoparticles. Fish health is, of course, greatly influenced by the quality of the water.

The physio-chemical characteristics of fish farm water play an important role in the production and growth of the fish. Besides, the impact on physico-chemical properties, trace metals, and organic matters such as poly-chlorinated bi-phenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and herbicides are introduced in the aquatic biota (Abbassy 2018).

Standard concerns include removing nitrogen wastes from the water, maintaining water quality for the species’ immediate needs (e.g., temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen levels), and observing how these parameters interact (Salze and Davis 2015). To remove foreign materials from pond water more effectively than micron-scale filtration, nano-filtration techniques are also recommended (Zodrow et al. 2009).

The production of hybrid nano-composite membranes with nanosilver and polyamide (PA) demonstrated their ability to inhibit microbe growth and bio-fouling. In addition to the salt rejection effect and water flux, Pseudomonas sp., to create multifunctional membranes acting as filtration systems in various types of contaminated water, nanosilver composite can be used (Zahid et al. 2018; Lee et al. 2007). Fewtrell showed that nanoparticles directly applied in water could affect the fish culture by bio-accumulation. It is essential to make toxicity acquisitions to regulate their use in the aquaculture industry (Fewtrell 2014).

Therefore, it has been highlighted in an analysis of nanoparticles applied to water treatment to prevent the growth of bacteria and viral pathogens. But there is a need for an evaluation of costs and benefits because the technology might be costly at the time (Pradeep 2009).

Nanotechnology and fish growth

Selenium nanoparticles

Nanotechnology has a lot of potential applications in the seafood and aquaculture industries. Nanoparticles of selenium (Se) are one of the microelements that all organisms of aquaculture use for a variety of functions (Sarkar et al. 2015a, b; Ibrahim et al. 2021). It is highly recommended to introduce Se nanoparticles into the aqua-feed industry in order to improve the production and health of aquatic animals.

Selenium nanoparticles have been extensively examined and have great potential in aquaculture as growth-promoting antioxidants and immuno-stimulant agents (Chris et al. 2018; Dawood 2021; Rathore et al. 2021). Several experimental studies have shown that increased levels of growth hormone were observed in fish species, e.g., Tor putitora, when dietary selenium nanoparticles were given. Similarly, a 6-week feeding trial of Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) fed dietary nanoselenium in a dose of 4 mg/kg demonstrated improved growth performance (Longbaf Dezfouli et al. 2019).

It is mentioned that a feed with supplemented nanoselenium can increase weight, antioxidant status, and relative gain rate in fish. Moreover, in crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio), it can increase glutathione peroxidase and muscle concentrations (Handy et al. 2012; Bhupinder 2014).

Efficient diet supplements of selenium NPs observed an improved crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio)-like antioxidant stamina weight gain and muscle bio-accumulation over time (Wang et al. 2007; Zhou et al. 2009). Goldfish (Carassius auratus) given dietary selenium NPs at 0.6 mg/kg for 9 weeks observed an increased weight, particularly growth, and also IGF-1 gene expressions. Meanwhile, a study found that feeding dietary Se nanoparticles to a grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) at a diet of 0.6–0.9 mg/kg for 10 weeks improved both the growth rate and survival rate (Jahanbakhshi et al. 2021).

Iron nanoparticles

It has been shown that young sturgeon and carp grow more quickly when iron nanoparticles are given. Various nanoparticles can serve as immune modulators and growth promoters when added to a fish diet on a micro-scale. Aquaculture frequently faces anemia because of inadequate iron levels in fish; to address iron deficiency, one potential solution to this problem is to use iron NPs as a supplemented diet (Thangapandiyan and Monika 2020) (Table 1).

Table 1 Different types of Nanoparticles and their role in fish growth
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Zinc nanoparticles

There is a lack of information about the effects on aquatic organisms, and a vital micro-element, zinc particles (ZnNPs), is involved in numerous fish body functions, such as gene regulation, metabolism of proteins, cell membrane integrity, and bone health.

In catfish (Pangasius hypophthalmus) under mixed biotic and abiotic stress conditions, zinc NPs induced growth and immune modulation (Kumar et al. 2018a, b; Davis and Gatlin 1996). As an essential micro-nutrient for both organisms and their surroundings, zinc plays a meta-role in numerous biological functions. For proper growth rate and metabolism, fish and all vertebrates need trace minerals like zinc. The primary component of the enzyme tertiary framework is zinc ions.

Zinc is a second essential micro-element and is involved in many body processes, such as energy and protein metabolism, gene regulation, cell membrane integrity, and bone health. In addition, zinc regulates protein synthesis, nucleic acid metabolism, and fish antioxidative enzymes (Yu et al. 2021). It is an essential trace element or micro-nutrient that is required for many biological processes, but the body is unable to store it, so it needs to be consumed continuously.

Zinc is necessary for the development of fish, for metabolic functions, for the health of the digestive system, and for defense against reactive and free radical oxygen species. Physiological concentrations of zinc may benefit species that support immuno-modulation and the integrity of the gut wall (Skalny et al. 2021).

According to studies, a fish deficient in zinc caused their offspring to also lack zinc in the subsequent generation, and these effects on the offspring included decreased activity, altered DNA methyl-transferase regulation, and an increase in mortality. In addition, inadequate zinc levels have a detrimental impact on the growth of fish, and adult fish that are zinc-deficient exhibit a marked reduction in size and fitness (Beaver et al. 2017). Zinc is the most vital mineral to all organisms including fish. It is crucial for transcription factors and the synthesis of proteins, both of which bind zinc and are thought to need it for their processes.

Furthermore, it is essential for the metabolic processes that sustain life, such as the uptake of oxygen, RNA, and DNA by cells, reproduction, preservation of integrity of cell membrane, and free radical sequestration. Aquatic animals’ physiological and biological processes are impacted by zinc deficiency, and inadequate zinc leads to physiological and biological disturbances in aquatic organisms.

The best method for overcoming zinc deficiency in aquatic organisms is to supplement with zinc oxide nanoparticles (Thangapandiyan and Monika 2020). Because nanomaterials have unique, novel qualities, the US FDA has approved them as having features including a large A/V ratio, tiny size, and high superficial activity (Shah and Mraz 2020a, b).

Several challenges that restrict the productivity of fish have been addressed by the usage of nanotechnology. By using nanoparticle supplements, essential nutrients like silver iron, zinc, selenium, and copper can be included in their diet to support healthy growth, reproduction, and overall well-being. Additionally, they are essential for fast disease diagnosis, antimicrobial drug delivery, and nanovaccination, among other applications of fish medicine. Additionally, they significantly contribute to the cleaning and packaging of fish and water, the removal of chemical and biological pollutants, and the provision of high-quality water (Abbas et al. 2021).

Zinc NPs are also used in pharmaceuticals, immunizations, farm water flotation, growth booting products, fertility stimulants, feed additives, protein synthesis, energy consumption, animal growth, and other fields. It also plays a role in strengthening the immune system (Kumar et al. 2021).

In research, adding 30 mg kg−1 of ZnONPs to the diet of tilapia (Orechromess niloticus) resulted in higher quantities of total protein, lysozyme, survival rate, and total antioxidant capacity, along with increased gene expression of interleukins (Awad et al. 2019). The Nile tilapia experiment compared the effects of ZnO nanoparticles and conventional ZnO added to their diet at the rate of 30 and 60 mg kg−1 to a control diet.

According to the studies, a fish that received 60 mg kg−1 of ZnONPs demonstrated the highest levels of oxidative enzyme activity and improved intestinal topography. Research showed that ZnONPs at a dosage of 60 mg kg−1 enhance the growth, feed consumption, intestinal morphology, enzyme activity, and biomarkers of the oxidative response in Nile tilapia (Ibrahim et al. 2022).

Moreover, male rainbow trout sperm quality and health are significantly impacted by zinc, especially when it comes in nano-form. According to the study, the trout’s sperm motility and spermatocyte increased after receiving 40 mg kg−1 of ZnONPs over 16 weeks, suggesting a beneficial effect on semen parameters.

According to the passage, nanozinc antioxidant qualities might be to blame for this effect, and compared to other forms of zinc, it might be a more effective way to improve sperm health and quality (Kazemi et al. 2020). The application of NPs in aquaculture systems has made it possible to tackle various challenges that affect fish productivity.

Nanotechnology and vaccines

Nanovaccines

An approaching mass immunization technique in aquaculture is called nanovaccine (Assefa and Abunna 2018). Nanovaccines have induced humoral and cellular immune responses in fishes based on several studies of the detection of the antigen by various methods, and it has been proposed that oral nanovaccines can effectively transport purified antigens or DNA as shown in Fig. 6 proposed by Rajesh Kumar et al. (2008).

Fig. 6
figure 6

This pictorial representation elaborates that NPs maintain the stability of the antigen and facilitate its effective uptake by antigen-presenting cells, which proceed to generate adaptive immune responses via complex pathways, that include presenting antigen to lymphocytes, which stimulate clonal growth and strengthen the effector mechanisms of humoral and T-cell responses to fight against the pathogen

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Vaccines in the intestine, gills, liver, muscle, heart, blood, spleen, and head kidney have been studied (Rajesh Kumar et al. 2008; Vimal et al. 2012; Li et al. 2013). Fascinatingly, NPs have been shown in multiple studies to target the liver and other organs, and this effect is dependent on many factors (Wang et al. 2019).

It is interesting to point out that some nanovaccines have the ability to alter the integrity of the cell junction during the permeation process. This mechanism may be connected to the positive charges of NPs and is suggested as a beneficial feature to support the delivery of antigen or DNA vaccines (Liu et al. 2016). The US Department of Agriculture exhibited a device that uses ultrasound technology to vaccinate fish in large quantities.

A fish pond is filled with short DNA-loaded nano-capsule strands that attach themselves to fish cells. After that, ultrasonography is used to burst the capsules and release the DNA, which causes an immune reaction. This technology was experimented in rainbow trout and is being sold by Clear Springs Foods in the USA (Mongillo 2007). Similarly, the targeted-oriented release of activated components for vaccination and oral delivery of vaccines will reduce fish aquaculture farming costs (Rivas-Aravena et al. 2015).

Recent times have seen advancements in fish vaccination, and among the advancements are the creation of multivalent vaccines and the immunization of large stocks at once (Plant and Lapatra 2011). In 1942, fish vaccinations against Aeromonas salmonicida infection were introduced in Cutthroat. There are vaccines that are injectable and adjuvant to oil, and adjuvants enhance the immune system’s response and reduce the need for frequent administration (Gudding and Van Muiswinkel 2013). Practically, all animals used in food production receive vaccinations on a large scale. In aquaculture, it lessens the usage of antibiotics (Plaza-Diaz et al. 2019a, b).

Toxicological impacts of nanoparticles

Iron nanoparticles toxicity

An experimental study on zebrafish (D. rario) with doses of 50 and 100 mg/L demonstrated developmental toxicity after 14 h in the embryos which leads to mortality and delayed hatching processes (Hafiz et al. 2018).

Another study demonstrated the long-term effects of 500 mg/L concentration of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe2O3NPs) on the hematological, iono-regulatory, and physiological parameter of Rohu (L. rohita), a decrease in mean cellular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), mean cellular volume (MCV), mean cellular hemoglobin (MCH), and white blood cell (WBC) levels throughout the research. In fish biology, the interaction of iron oxide nanoparticles also causes changes in ion regulation, which results in hypokalemia (K+), hyponatremia (Na+), and hypochloremia (Cl−). Gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity has been found to double. The outcomes constitute an overview of the toxicological effects of iron oxide nanoparticles on L. rohita physiology and metabolism for a period of 25 days (Remya et al. 2015).

Similarly, the toxicological effect of FeNps was observed on Catla fish (C. catla) with a dose of 2.1 ppm iron nanoparticles in which biochemical analysis in various tissues such as muscle, liver, brain, and kidney showed remarkable variations in sugar, lipid, and protein levels after 96 h. These findings are taken as stress inducers on fish due to heavy metal toxicity and significant changes in metabolism processes like fatty acid and gluconeogenesis synthesis (Ilavazhahan et al. 2015).

Rohu (Labeo rohita) have shown changes in behavior upon exposure to iron oxide nanoparticles. A sub-lethal dosage of 300 mg/L for 4 weeks results in changes in behavior patterns such as surface separation, bottom resting, and jerking (Keerthika et al. 2016). Iron oxide nanoparticles with 15 mg/L dosage for 60-day duration also induced chronic histo-pathological destruction in Oreochromis mossambicus (Vidya and Chitra 2019).

In an experimental study, results showed how exposure to iron oxide nanoparticles with 50 mg/L affects Oreochromis mossambicus’ hematological parameters. It was subjected to three different iron oxide NP concentrations. An increased level of serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) and serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) was observed after 48 h and indicates damage to fish liver tissue by accumulation (Karthikeyeni et al. 2013).

In another study on the fish rainbow trout (Oncorhyn chusmykiss), the ecological impacts of the iron oxide nanoparticles were analyzed on spermatozoon. An exposure of iron nanoparticles at the range of 100 mg/L had significant (P < 0.05) decreases in the velocities of spermatozoon after 24 h exposure. Study also reported a decrease in catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities (Özgür et al. 2018).

Silver nanoparticle toxicity

Silver NPs also have some toxicological impacts in a few fish species, e.g., zebrafish (Danio rerio) in which modest impacts on the genome were observed after exposure dosage of 1.0 mg/L for 15 days that resulted in embryo changes, delayed hatching, and ultimately mortality (Cambier et al. 2018). Similarly, juvenile fish (Prochilodus lineatus) were exposed to 2.5 and 25.0 µgAgNP L−1 for 5 and 15 days in order to check silver nanoparticle toxicity. Silver nanoparticles accumulated in tissue (e.g., liver, intestine, and brain). Hematological and morphometric parameters and oxidative stress markers also indicated the accumulation of silver nanoparticles in the fish (Ale et al. 2018).

A few other kinds of research showed that Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) was exposed to 400 μg/L of silver nanoparticles for 70 days resulting in some damages in the developing organs like the embryos and brain (Wu et al. 2010). Another study showed that an increased concentration of AgNPs leads to bio-accumulation of AgNPs in vital tissues, and hematological parameters have shown a significant alteration in the experimented fish.

A histological consequence caused by chemically produced AgNPs resulted in the damage in the tissues, blood vessels, and primary lamella of L. rohita at different dosage levels (25, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 mg kg−1) for 7 days (Rajkumar et al. 2016). Gill impairment in Eurasian Perch larva (Perca fluviatilis) at the dose of 386 μg L−1 after 24 h was observed due to silver nanoparticle exposure ( Bilberg et al. 2010).

A similar study was conducted to analyze the eco-toxicological impacts of AgNPs on blood and reproductive parameters of common molly (Poecilia sphenops) and its larvae. Exposure of female species at different concentrations of 0, 5, 15, 25, 35, 45, and 60 mg L−1 of AgNPs and larvae were exposed to 0, 3, 5, 10, and 15 mg L−1. A significant decrease was observed in RBC, WBC, hematocrit level, and reproductive parameters when a fish was exposed to a higher concentration of more than 10 mg L−1 (Vali et al. 2022).

Meanwhile, juvenile fish pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus) was analyzed for toxicological endpoints such as metal burdens, genotoxicity, and oxidative stress. Fish were exposed to (control) 2.5, 10, and 25 μg AgNPs/L. After 1 day, it was observed that AgNPs accumulated in large amounts in the brain. An increased level of lipid peroxidation was observed in the liver when exposed to 10 μg AgNPs/L (Bacchetta et al. 2017).

Copper nanoparticle toxicity

Copper is a non-biodegradable substance that has the potential to accumulate in the environment and cause hazardous impacts. The accumulation and release of copper have raised concerns globally (Nriagu 1996; Woody and O’Neal 2012) (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7
figure 7

Nanoparticles internalized in cells through endocytosis. Particles are released into the specific site and generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) by nanoparticles, then attach to the mitochondria and attach to nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), and lose electrons. DNA damage and protein disruption leads to cell death

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According to a study, common carp (Cyprinus carpio) subjected to 20 to 100 µg/L for 7 days to copper NPs showed signs of damaged liver, which manifested cells with pyknotic nuclei (Gupta et al. 2016). The liver and kidney of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) had been damaged by exposure to both CuNP\s at 0.25 mg/L and CuSO4 at 25 mg/L for 14 days. However, the damage produced by CuSO4 in common carp was greater than that of CuNPs (Hoseini et al. 2016).

Selenium nanoparticle toxicity

As previously stated, to generate a nutritionally adequate fish feed, the right amount of selenium nanoparticles is needed. However, high amounts and excessive dosages of selenium nanoparticles have the potential to have hazardous effects and to disrupt a variety of physiological and biological functions in fish bodies (El-Sharawy et al. 2021; Mal et al. 2017; Khan et al. 2017). Thus, an excessive amount of Se nanoparticles adversely affected the gill and liver histology along with related metabolic parameters, e.g., LDH, acetylcholine esterase (ACHE), and liver function (ALP, AST, and ALT) with the dose of 5.29 and 3.97 mg/L in Pangasius hypophthalmus (Kumar et al. 2018a, b).

Goldfish (Carassius auratus) was exposed to selenium nanoparticle toxicity for a duration of 60 days at 1 mg/kg which showed an increase in spermatocyte and spermatid counts, disruption of DNA in sperm, and higher MDA and GPx levels in seminal plasma (Seyedi et al. 2021) (Table 2).

Table 2 Different types of Nanoparticles and their toxicological impacts
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Conclusion

Nanotechnology is an innovative technology that is gaining attention globally because it has played a vital role in various fields of science and technology through nanoparticles. In the aquaculture industry, it has been used to tackle several challenges like disease management, vaccine delivery, growth factor, water treatment, and nutrient delivery using different nanoparticles like zinc, silver, selenium, iron, and copper. This review is helpful to overcome the various challenges faced by the aquaculture industry. Many researches mentioned above have shown that these nanoparticles have a high potential of being antioxidant and antibacterial.

Several nanoparticles, e.g., zinc, selenium, and iron, have an important role in growth promotion by enhancing protease, metallo-protease activity, digestive tract enzyme function, enzyme activity, and improved intestinal topography. Meanwhile, many of them have played a crucial role in being antibacterial, antiviral, and anti-fungal like silver nanoparticles.

Several researchers have proved that silver nanoparticle shows high antibacterial properties by deactivation of a bacterial cell protein and genetic material which leads to bacterial cell disruption. Therefore, this technology is gaining so much attention in the aquaculture industry.

Apart from this, these nanoparticles have some toxicological impacts that can cause harmful impacts on fish health, while they are used without deep observations, which may lead to undesired consequences. Therefore, it is important to have all relevant information on their mode of administration as this literature review covers including the duration of exposure, dosage, and concentration accessible. According to many researchers mentioned above, it should be applied for a specific time duration to prevent their toxicity, and complete check and balance (e.g., temperature, pH, and salinity) should be enlisted before its use in aquaculture industry.