Introduction

A growing demand for energy and prospects of exhaustion of conventional energy sources lead to an increased interest in alternative energy sources in Poland. According to the document “The Energy Policy until 2030” (Ministry of Economy 2009), it is forecast that the use of renewable energy sources in the final energy balance will increase to 15 % in 2020 and 20 % in 2030. Renewable energy sources are locally distributed and can, therefore, boost the energy security level by reducing export of organic fuels, create new jobs (especially in small and medium companies), and promote regional development (Mazo-Agugliaro et al. 2013). The modular nature of the majority of renewable energy sources technologies means that they can be gradually extended as needed, which makes their funding easier. The development of the renewable energy sector is particularly beneficial to rural areas, where it stimulates the local economic growth. The rural areas in Poland are characterised by both the highest unemployment and the weakest energy supply infrastructure. Thus, the use of renewable energy sources could be a chance to improve the development conditions in the rural areas (Sedlak and Sedlak 2014).

The power of all installation producing energy from the renewable energy sources was sixfold in Poland during 2004–2015 period—from just above 1 GW in 2004 to over 6 GW in 2015. This growth is mostly due to an increase in power of wind farms. In 2004 as much as 86 % of power was generated by hydropower plants (881 MW) and only 6 % from wind farms (65 MW). In 2015, wind farms dominated the renewable energy production sector (64 % of the total power from renewable energy sources) (Central Statistical Office 2014; Energy Regulatory Office 2015).

The Pomorskie Voivodeship, together with the Zachodniopomorskie Voivodeship and the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeship (Central Statistical Office 2014), is the leader in terms of renewable energy production in Poland, with the wind power sector being best developed there. These regions also have the highest number of agricultural biogas plants (Igliński et al. 2012a).

The current state of and development prospects for renewable energy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship have been presented. We also were prepared surveys: “Aeroenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship” (Survey 2014a), “Hydroenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship” (Survey 2014b), “The biomass in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (Survey 2014c), “Helioenergy in Pomorskie the Voivodship—users of solar installations” (Survey 2014d) and “The heat pomps in the Pomorskie Voivodship” (Survey 2014e). The obtained surveys and data from the literature sources were used to conduct the SWOT analysis of renewable energy sources in the voivodeship. As a result of the conducted SWOT analysis, it is possible to define the future development of renewable energy sector in the Pomorskie Voivodeship and Poland. Actions fostering the further growth of renewable energy sources in Poland will be proposed.

SWOT analysis: methodology

A SWOT analysis is a structured planning method used to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats involved in a project or in a business venture (Chen et al. 2014; Chermack and Bernadette 2007). A SWOT analysis can be carried out for a product, place, industry, or person. It involves specifying the objective of the business venture or project and identifying the internal and external factors that are favourable and unfavourable to achieve that objective. The degree to which the internal environment of the firm matches with the external environment is expressed by the concept of strategic fit:

  • Strengths characteristics of the business or project that give it an advantage over others,

  • Weaknesses characteristics that place the business or project at a disadvantage relative to others,

  • Opportunities elements that the project could exploit to its advantage,

  • Threats elements in the environment that could cause trouble for the business or project (Fig. 1) (Nadine and Richter 2007; Terrados et al. 2007).

    Fig. 1
    figure 1

    Scheme of SWOT analysis

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In order to define the strengths and weaknesses, the authors posed the following questions:

  1. (1)

    What are the natural conditions for the development of a given type of renewable energy sources (RES)?

  2. (2)

    Does the development of a given type of RES generate a lot of interest among investors/local authorities?

  3. (3)

    What is the current level of knowledge of Polish citizens about a given type of RES?

  4. (4)

    How high are the investment costs? Is it possible to use the public/European Union means to co-fund the investment?

  5. (5)

    How long does the investment process last? Does it require a lot of documentation and encounter “the Polish bureaucracy”?

  6. (6)

    What is the profitability of RES installations? Is it possible to have subsidies in the form of green certificates?

  7. (7)

    Is the generated energy cheaper than energy from coal?

  8. (8)

    How does a given type of RES impact on the environment?

  9. (9)

    Is the construction of an installation currently causing public opposition or protests among environmentalists?

In order to define the opportunities and threats, the authors posed the following questions:

  1. (1)

    Will the research conducted at a laboratory/technical level lead to higher efficiency and lower price of energy generation from a given type of RES?

  2. (2)

    Can the installation be easily connected to the current power grid network?

  3. (3)

    Will the construction of an installation still cause public opposition/opposition from environmental groups in the future?

  4. (4)

    How secure will the supplies of appropriate quality biomass be?

  5. (5)

    Will the development of a given type of RES generate new jobs?

  6. (6)

    Is there an opportunity to develop mini-installations and micro-installations?

  7. (7)

    Will the development of a given type of RES lead to the economic growth? For example, will tourism or balneology develop?

  8. (8)

    Will the current legal regulations have a positive impact on the development of the RES sector in Poland/Pomorskie Voivodeship?

The SWOT analysis was conducted using the information provided by the renewable energy producers (surveys), literature sources data, the strategy for the development of renewable energy sources as well as legal acts and regulations. Recommendations on how to quicker develop a particular renewable energy sector have been added to this paper.

Identification of SWOTs is important because they can inform later steps in planning to achieve the objective (Chen et al. 2014; Chermack and Bernadette 2007). First, the decision-makers should consider whether the objective is attainable, given the SWOTs. If the objective is not attainable a different objective must be selected and the process repeated. Users of SWOT analysis need to ask and answer questions that generate meaningful information for each category (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) to make the analysis useful and find their competitive advantage (Nadine and Richter 2007; Terrados et al. 2007).

The description of the Pomorskie Voivodeship

The Pomorskie Voivodeship (Fig. 2) is located in the northern part of Poland, on the Baltic Sea Coast. It covers the area of 18,310 km2. The number of inhabitants is 2.29 million people and the voivodeship’s authorities have their seat in Gdańsk (Central Statistical Office 2013a).

Fig. 2
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The location of the Pomorskie Voivodeship in Poland (black colour)

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Geomorphological diversity, the vicinity of the Baltic Sea and the region’s location within the influence of the seasonal specific and changing patterns of baric topography result in a visible differentiation of climatic conditions within the area of the Pomorskie Voivodeship. The oceanic character of the region’s land located directly on the Baltic Coast is further reinforced by masses of oceanic air moving over Poland. The influence of the Baltic itself, which is a relatively small water body, is noticeable in the narrow coastal zone and reaches only 30 km inland from the coastline. However, the combined influences of the Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea result in the whole voivodeship’s area having milder winters and cooler summers than inland as well as low annual temperature amplitudes. The land’s elevation above the sea level means that the central parts of the lakelands are characterised by a much harsher climate than that of the coastal zone (Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014).

Annual air temperature oscillations and the mean annual temperature amplitude change their values in a way that confirms the Baltic’s significant impact on the thermal regime of the Pomorskie Voivodeship. The temperature amplitude lines are distributed almost parallel to the coastline. The lowest mean annual air temperature amplitude is found in the narrow coastal zone, where it reaches about 17.5 °C, the highest—on the south-eastern edges of area near Kwidzyn (20 °C). The number of frosty days, that is, with the minimal temperature below 0 °C, changes within a year from below 30 days on the coast to over 50 days on the southern edges of the voivodeship. In comparison to the other regions of Poland, the Pomorskie Voivodeship is characterised by a significant amount of precipitation, reaching even 1000 mm/year in the northern part (Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014).

Most of the voivodeship’s area is covered by soils created from postglacial formations (Pleistocene)—morainic clays and sand as well as glaciofluvial sands. The majority of soils that were formed here are medium-quality brown soils (mainly leached and acid ones) as well as podzolic and pseudo-podzolic soils, the limited fertility of which depends on the type of parent rock and extent of acidification. These are most often acid and highly acid soils, which require regular lime application (Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014).

Aeroenergy: current state, prospects, SWOT analysis

The annual and seasonal distribution of wind frequency in the Pomorskie Voivodeship is similar to the characteristics of the whole area of Polish Lowland. Western and south-western winds tend to dominate. However, in terms of wind speed, two noticeably separate areas can be distinguished. The first one is the seafront region, including Słowińskie Coast and Kaszubskie Coast, where the highest wind speed in Poland occurs as well as a high number of days per year (up to 70) with strong and very strong wind (above 15 m/s) is recorded. Strong and very strong wind occurs mainly in winter (Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014).

As a result of favourable wind conditions in the coastal zone, the first few wind power plants of total power slightly over 2 MW were constructed in Gdańsk region in 1991–2004. The Pomorskie Voivodeship currently produces a significant amount of wind power. At the moment, there are 40 wind installations (wind turbines/farms) (Fig. 3) of total power of 424 MW (Energy Regulatory Office 2015).

Fig. 3
figure 3

The power of installed wind power plants and the number of installations in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (own data based on (Energy Regulatory Office 2015))

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The wind farm in Lisewo is a system of 18 wind turbines of total power of 10.8 MW. The farm is located on Żarnowiecka Upland, in the vicinity of the top reservoir of the pumped-storage power plant Żarnowiec. This is where the first modern wind turbine in Poland, of height of 32.7 m and power of 150 kW, was constructed in 1991. In 2005, 14 new turbines of height of 60 m and power of 600 kW each commenced their operation (Energy Regulatory Office 2015).

The wind farm in Pelplin consists of 24 wind turbines of individual power of 2 MW each and total installed power capacity of 48 MW. The total cost of the investment reached 227 million PLN (1 EUR = 4.00 PLN, 09.04.2015). A similar farm operates in Łosino (Fig. 3). In Koniecwałd, there is a farm consisting of 12 wind turbines of power of 1.5 MW, whilst in Puck, there is a farm of 11 wind turbines of power of 2 MW each (Energy Regulatory Office 2015).

Aeroenergy: prospects

The Pomorskie Voivodeship is experiencing a rapidly growing interest from investors due to its favourable wind conditions. Up to now the operators of the electric power grid in the Pomorskie Voivodeship have issued permits to connect wind farms of power exceeding 2.6 GW. It is a few times more than the power of currently operating wind turbines. For example, within the area of Słupsk and Ustka communes, a wind farm is to be constructed, which is ultimately planned to consist of 180 wind turbines of total power of 240 MW. Moreover, in the Człuchów commune, over a hundred wind turbines are to be constructed within next few years (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010).

The co-operation between wind power plants and the pumped-storage power plant “Żarnowiec” is forecast for the near future. During periods of increased electric power production by wind power plants, a part of energy will be directed to the hydropower plant in order to pump water into the top reservoir (power accumulation). On the other hand, during times of lower energy production by wind power plants, the hydropower plant “Żarnowiec” will generate electric energy, stabilising (topping up) the electric power system. This solution will result in increased mean power of the system: wind power plants—Żarnowiec Power Plant (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010).

Due to the length of its coastline and a considerable area of territorial waters, the Pomorskie Voivodeship has one of the most significant off-shore wind power technical potentials on the Baltic. This potential is, however, limited due to environmental conditions and the intensive utilisation of territorial waters for other economic purposes. Up to now, 14 permits have been issued by and 70 requests have been forwarded to the Ministry of Transport, Construction and Maritime Economy regarding permission to construct and exploit artificial islands, structures and equipment for the off-shore wind farms on the Polish territorial waters (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010).

It is worth mentioning that in the Pomorskie Voivodeship, wind turbines are built in Gdańsk Shipyard. Their construction (300 turbines in 2012) increased the company’s profitability. Moreover, a watercraft “Heavy Lift Jack up Vessel” with a heavy lift system for the construction and maintenance of off-shore wind farms is to be constructed. This vessel will be characterised by a loading capacity of up to 8000 tones and a 1500 tones crane, which will enable installation of wind turbines of power over 6 MW. “Heavy Lift Jack up Vessel” will be able to install and provide maintenance services to off-shore constructions as high as 120 m and with foundations in water as deep as 50 m (Bastian 2012).

According to the Institute for Renewable Energy (Wiśniewski 2011), the economic potential of wind power sector in the Pomorskie Voivodeship is 10.5 GW, which means that in terms of wind power generation in Poland, this region comes second after the Zachodniopomorskie Voivodeship.

Aeroenergy: surveys

Individual investors responded to the survey “Aeroenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship” (Survey, 2014a). The wind turbines were constructed between 2004 and 2014. The investors indicated they had 2–6 wind turbines. The completion of wind investment project took between 8 and 24 months (90 % of survey participants). The investment costs per one turbine were as follows:

  • up to 200,000 PLN: 5 % of survey participants,

  • 201,000–500,000 PLN: 15 % of survey participants,

  • 501,000–1 million PLN: 35 % of survey participants, and

  • over 1 million PLN: 45 % of survey participants.

The respondents estimated the waiting time for an investment return to be between 7 and 15 years. It was most often 10 years (60 % of respondents). The power of wind turbines varied between 0.5 and 2 MW (Survey 2014a).

The majority of respondents were planning to install more wind turbines in the future. They also stressed that this was still a relatively expensive investment with a long waiting time for a financial return. They drew attention to increasingly growing investment problems: a long waiting time for a permit, opposition from environmental groups as well as difficulties getting connected to the power grid. High expectations are held for the development of small, domestic wind turbines, especially in rural areas (Survey 2014a).

Aeroenergy: SWOT analysis

Using the information from the companies installing wind power plants, the owners of wind turbines (Survey 2014a) and documents (Bastian 2012; Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014; Wiśniewski 2011) the SWOT analysis of wind power in the Pomorskie Voivodeship was prepared (Table 1).

Table 1 SWOT analysis of aeroenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (Bastian 2012; Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014; Survey 2014a; Wiśniewski 2011)
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As mentioned earlier, the Pomorskie Voivodeship as a whole has good wind conditions. Wind energy is generating great interest among investors so the main reasons include significant investment profits, following the example of other owners of wind turbines/farms as well as a desire to protect the environment. The investors make profit from selling electric power and from selling green certificates (Bastian 2012; Survey 2014a).

Among the weaknesses are numerous obstacles facing to investors, especially a long and complicated investment process. The majority of investors complain about high investment costs. It is possible to obtain financial resources to construct/connect a wind power plant in Poland although it takes quite a long time. In addition, in the areas with a large number of operating wind turbines, there are ever more frequent problems getting connected to the power grid documents (Survey 2014a). Badly located wind turbines, as high objects, can have a significant impact on the landscape. A negative influence on fauna prompted investors to commission thorough investigation on what impact a given wind turbine/farm exerts on animals, birds and bats in particular (Stevens et al. 2013).

A faster development of the wind power sector would lead to the simplification of procedures of obtaining a wind energy construction permit. Currently, this process requires numerous documents and can take up to 3 years. Clear guidelines for the investors need to be introduced, and the waiting time for a permit needs to be reduced as much as possible. In our opinion, each commune should designate officers to help with filling in the required documents.

In Poland, the financial means for the development of the coal energy sector (mostly) come from the state means. In our opinion, the state authorities and local authorities should allocate means for the development of RES in their region each year. For example, regions with favourable wind conditions should be allocated greater means for the development of the wind power sector. Badly located wind power plants exert a negative impact on the landscape, flora and fauna, and lead to public opposition. Thus, it is very important that the investor should choose the appropriate location and carry out a thorough analysis of the plant’s environmental impact.

Public consultations are also very important—it is necessary to explain to the local community how a wind turbine operates and what benefits it can bring. It is also necessary to talk about threats and indicate how the investor is going to minimise them (Sun et al. 2014).

Hydroenergy: current state, prospects, SWOT analysis

The Pomorskie Voivodeship is one of the few in Poland that has plentiful water resources meeting municipal and industrial demands. The variety of resources includes both surface water and ground water, the latter including geothermal and mineral waters (Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014). The energy potential of rivers with an adequate gradient and flow is in most cases harnessed to produce power. At the national level, the Radunia and Słupia rivers stand out as premier examples of efficient harnessing of energy potential. Renewable energy, that is, energy produced in run-of-the-river hydropower stations and less often in dam hydropower plants of power up to 5 MW, is generated by nearly a hundred of small hydropower plants. Among these 31 hydropower plants, mainly of higher power, are commercial power plants owned by distributing companies. In total in the Pomorskie Voivodeship, there operate 108 hydropower plants of total power of 34 MW (Fig. 4) (Energy Regulatory Office 2015).

Fig. 4
figure 4

The power and number of hydropower plants in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (own data based on (Energy Regulatory Office 2015))

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The hydropower plant Bielkowo (Fig. 4) was constructed on the Radunia river in 1925. The maximum flow capacity of hydrotechnical structures is 111 m3/s, and the highest flow (57 m3/s) was recorded in March 1947. The weir separates the Radunia waters into the old river bed and an approach flume 1350 m long. The flume carries water into the reservoir Kolbudy II of area of 54 ha. This reservoir was created by embanking a natural hollow area with four earth dykes of total length of 3600 m. The difference of levels is 44.8 m, which enables generation of 7.2 MW of power. The concrete pipeline includes a compensation tower, which prevents water hammer in case of a sudden decrease of flow through the turbines. The inner diameter of the tower is 12.0 m whilst its height is 17.0 m (Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014).

“Żarnowiec” hydropower plant in Czymanowo, which is the largest hydropower (pumped-storage) plant in Poland, started its operation in 1983. According to the initial plans, this hydropower plant was to co-operate with a nuclear power plan constructed nearby. The power plant “Żarnowiec” is equipped with four reversible hydropower units (Francis turbines, synchronous generators) of nominal power of 179 MW in a generator mode and of 210 MW in a pump mode. Individual units operate in a block system as four independent process lines and power take-off points with independent control of individual units. The top reservoir of the power plant is the Czymanowo reservoir—a man-made lake of area 122 ha and capacity 13 million cubic metres, constructed at the former site of Kolkowo village. The lower reservoir is the Żarnowieckie Lake. Both reservoirs are connected by a diversionary pipeline (Fig. 5). The operation of the power plant “Żarnowiec” is fully automatised, and the start-off and switch-off of particular hydropower units are controlled remotely by the National Power Dispatch Centre in Warsaw. In addition, the operator of the National Power Dispatch Centre remotely regulates the amount of the power generated by the plant’s hydropower turbines (Majewski 1996).

Fig. 5
figure 5

A diversionary pipeline linking the top and lower reservoirs of the”Żarnowiec” power plant (photography: B. Igliński)

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Hydroenergy: prospects

In the near future, no significant rise in electricity production from hydropower is forecast. This is due to the fact that the majority of hydropower structures that could be used to construct power plants have already been used whilst other structures need to be renovated, adapted or thoroughly rebuilt (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010).

Hydroenergy: surveys

The owners of river-based hydropower plants responded to the survey “Hydroenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship” (Survey 2014b). The power plants were created between 1975 and 2002. The completion of the investment project took most often between 2 and 36 months. The cost of investment was mainly contained in 100,000 PLN. Generated energy is partly used to meet own needs (up to 5 % of produced energy) and partly sold. The respondents estimated the waiting time for an investment return to be between 8 and 18 years.

Similarly to wind turbines, the survey participants stressed that this was still a relatively expensive investment with a long waiting time for a financial return. They also drew attention to increasing problems with investment project, most of all a long waiting time for all the permits. One of the respondents described in detail his difficulties obtaining all the necessary permits (Survey 2014b).

Hydroenergy: SWOT analysis

Using the information from the owners of hydropower (Survey 2014b) stations and documents (Energy Regulatory Office 2015; Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014; Wiśniewski 2011), the SWOT analysis of hydropower in the Pomorskie Voivodeship was prepared (Table 2).

Table 2 SWOT analysis of hydroenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (Energy Regulatory Office 2015; Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014; Survey 2014b; Wiśniewski 2011)
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A strong aspect of hydropower in the Pomorskie Voivodeship is its lower price when compared with energy from combusting fossil fuels. In addition, the efficiency of power generation in water turbines is high and reaches even 90 %. As the traditions of harnessing energy from water in the voivodeship go back to the beginning of the 20th century, the hydropower technology is well controlled. Small hydropower plants can be located even on small rivers, thus additionally increasing the water retention (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Survey 2014b).

The weaknesses of hydropower include a necessity to put weirs on the river, which can have a negative impact on fish population (de Leaniz 2008). Prolonged periods of draught in the Pomorskie Voivodeship can negatively influence the work of hydropower stations. As a result of convoluted regulations private investors find it very difficult to enter the hydropower sector as they do not want to invest their capital in the uncertain market. Clear formal and legal regulations need to be introduced both at the whole country level and the voivodeship level (Survey 2014b; Wiśniewski 2011).

Water reservoirs located at the hydropower plants can positively impact on the economic development of the region, especially the fishing industry, tourism and water sports. Among the threats are unclear legal regulations (which are unlikely to change in the near future), which result in significantly reduced interest among investors (Survey 2014b).

The recommendations of “simplification of legislation” and “higher subsidies for water energy” are the same as for the wind power sector. It is estimated that before World War II, there were 25 thousand of hydropower plants in Poland. Unfortunately, some of them were destroyed in the war whilst some fell into disrepair after the war. However, in Poland, there are still a few thousand weirs and/or water mills. It is in these places, where there is already a water infrastructure, that modern hydropower plants should be built, which would also be cheaper. When constructing new hydropower plants, environmental aspects should be considered. Fish ladders should be built most of all as this will facilitate free fish migration.

Biomass: current state, prospects, and SWOT analysis

Heat production has been, and probably will continue to be, the main use of wood for energy purposes in the Pomorskie Voivodeship. Wood is becoming increasingly popular as a fuel to heat houses, especially in the countryside, and the number of heating installations adapted to burn wood is rising with every year. The number of modern boiler installations based at timber processing plants and burning waste biomass is also on the increase (Igliński et al. 2015). There are about 50 installations for harnessing energy from wood waste operating at pulp and paper plants of total power of 1 GW. The number of local heat plants using wood chips produced by a forestry industry is constantly growing in the municipal sector (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010).

In the Heat and Power Plant Kwidzyn (Fig. 6), there are currently 7 steam boilers – 6 power boilers and 1 heat boiler. Among power boilers, four are classic coal-fed (pulverisd-fuel) boilers, one is a fluidised-bed (CFB) boiler combusting bark (a waste product from a paper plant) and waste wood and the last one is a soda-recovery boiler combusting post-digestion liquor (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010). The Heat and Power plants in Gdańsk and Gdynia have been co-firing biomass in already existing power boilers since 2008.

Fig. 6
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The production of bioenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (own data based on (Agricultural Market Agency 2015; Energy Regulatory Office 2015))

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Biofuels are also produced in the Pomorskie Voivodeship. The town of Starogard Gdański produces 70 million dm3/year of bio ethanol whilst Goszyn produces 32 million dm3/year. As for RME (Brondani et al. 2015; Delavari et al. 2015), it is produced in Malbork in the amount of 159 million dm3/year (Agricultural Market Agency 2015; Maroušek 2013a). Bio ethanol has been used as a fuel in Słupsk since 2006 (Fig. 6). There are currently eight public transport buses fuelled by E95 operating there. In the near future two more buses are to be purchased.

In the Pomorskie Voivodeship, biogas is obtained for energy purposes. This area has the highest number of agricultural biogas plants (9) (Table 3), followed by six biogas plants based at municipal waste landfill sites and four at sewage treatment works (Fig. 6) (Energy Regulatory Office 2015, Maroušek 2013b; Tyagi and Lo 2013).

Table 3 Technical characteristics of agricultural biogas plants in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (Energy Regulatory Office 2015; Igliński et al. 2012a)
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The largest biogas plant in Poland, which is located in Koczała, was created on a farm with 8000 sows. Annually, in the plant, there are 58,000 tones of slurry and 32,000 tones of maize silage processed through fermentation. Appropriately proportioned substrates are placed in a mixing compartment and then are directed to three fermentation tanks. Fermented biomass is sent to two post-fermentation tanks, where it is stored before being utilised for agricultural purposes (Igliński et al. 2012a).

Biomass: prospects

In the near future, there will be an increase in utilisation of biomass as a fuel. Solid biomass in the form of briquettes and pellets is becoming increasingly more popular in individual installations. The forestation rate of the Pomorskie Voivodeship is 36.2 % and is higher than the average for Poland, which is 29.2 % (Central Statistical Office 2013b). Assuming that 15 % of wood obtained directly in the forest could be used for energy purposes (parts of bark, slash, more chunky waste wood generated during logging), then 4.2 × 105 m3 of waste wood could be obtained annually.

The timber industry, including sawmills, furniture manufacturing plants, paper and pulp industry plants, creates a significant amount of waste wood in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (sawdust, woodshavings etc.). Another source of wood is used timber. It can be assumed that the amount of waste forest biomass obtained from industry and used timber is at least the same as the amount of waste wood obtained in the forest (Ratajczak et al. 2003).

The area covered by orchards in the Pomorskie Voivodeship is 4500 ha (Central Statistical Office 2013b). The timber from orchards is obtained through both felling and maintenance work (trimming of branches). As a result of felling of orchards, it is technically possible to obtain about 80 tones of biomass per 1 ha in case of older plantations (about 30-year old) and about 60 tones/ha in case of modern dwarf plantations (about 15-year old). The amount of biomass created during maintenance work varies, depending on the age and variety of trees, from 4 to 10 tones/ha (Jasiulewicz 2010). Assuming that due to felling orchards 3.5 tones of biomass can be obtained per 1 ha per year and that as a result of maintenance work 7 tones of biomass is created per 1 ha per year, then it is possible to obtain 47,200 tones/year of waste biomass from orchards in the Pomorskie Voivodeship.

In 2013, the Pomorskie Voivodeship produced about 517,000 tones of wheat straw, 227,000 tones of rye straw, 143,000 tones of barley straw, 109,000 tones of oats straw and 199,000 tones of triticale straw (Central Statistical Office 2013b). Around 35 % of straw could be used to generate energy. Currently, this potential is realised only to a small degree.

According to the Institute for Renewable Energy (Wiśniewski 2011), the economic potential of bioenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship is 231,000 tones/year of biomass from energy crops plantations. The Pomorskie Voivodeship has also a big potential in terms of liquid biofuels. Bio ethanol could be obtained from food surplus whilst biodiesel from post-frying oil (Yaakob et al. 2013).

Currently, every Polish biogas plant uses animal droppings as a main substrate (Maroušek 2013c; 2014a). The technical potential of biogas in the Pomorskie Voivodeship was calculated taking into consideration conversion factors of livestock heads into Livestock Units LSU (500 kg) (Regulation 2004)—for cattle the conversion rate is 0.8, for pigs—0.2, for poultry—0.004. The mean amount of slurry per 1 LSU is 44.9 kg for cattle, 43.5 kg for pigs and 26.8 kg for poultry (Kutera 1994). The number of heads was taken from the data of the Central Statistical Office (Central Statistical Office 2013c). The construction of biogas plants using slurry and/or poultry manure is technically and economically viable on farms with the livestock number of at least 100 heads of cattle, 500 heads of pigs and 5000 heads of poultry (Curkowski et al. 2011). Thus, the technical potential of agricultural biogas from animal droppings in Poland in 2013 should be estimated at 25 % of theoretical potential. The production of biogas from 1 tone of cattle slurry is estimated to be 50 m3, from pig slurry—55 m3 and from poultry manure—140 m3. The amount of biogas which could be obtained in the Pomorskie Voivodeship is 79 million m3/year.

The amount of municipal waste created in households and public use buildings in the Pomorskie Voivodeship is 5.72 × 105 tones/year, of which more than a half consists of biodegradable waste (Central Statistical Office 2013b; Maroušek 2014b). Due to a high distribution of bio-waste sources as well as a low degree of their segregation, the technical potential of biogas from municipal waste can be estimated at the level of 15 % of the theoretical potential. Assuming that it is possible to obtain 90 m3 of biogas from 1 tone of biodegradable waste, then 5 million m3/year of biogas can be obtained from municipal waste in the Pomorskie Voivodeship.

In the Pomorskie Voivodeship, 16 million m3 of municipal sewage is treated (Central Statistical Office (2013b). Assuming that from 50 % of influents flowing into the sewage treatment works, sludge is obtained (which is equivalent to 1 % of influents) and that 15 m3 of biogas can be obtained from 1 m3 of sludge, and then 1.2 million m3/year of biogas could be obtained in the Pomorskie Voivodeship.

Eutrophication of the Baltic Sea poses a serious environmental threat. Every year 1500 tones of algae is obtained from the beaches of Sopot alone (Igliński et al. 2011; Netka 2010). The authorities of the Swedish town of Trelleborg together with the Polish Sopot want to utilise the algae accumulating on the beaches in order to generate biogas. Until now the sea algae were simply thrown away at the waste landfill site. If the construction of a biogas plant goes ahead, then they could be now used to generate power. The biogas plant will also use other substrates, for example, grass and leaves (Netka 2010).

Biomass: surveys

The answers to the survey “The biomass in the Pomorskie Voivodeship” (Survey 2014c) were provided by respondents who own installations for biomass combustion. They used a wide variety of energy resources mainly for heating purposes: sawdust, chips, straw, waste wood from forest logging and sawmills, shavings from wood processing companies, pellets and briquettes from biomass. It is worth noting that certain boiler plants burnt a few different types of biomass. The amount of combusted biomass varied between a few tones to a few tens of tones per year. The investment costs reached most often between 40,000 PLN (individual boiler plants) and a few hundred thousand PLN. The respondents estimated the waiting time for investment return to be 6–15 years. The following were considered to be the most important operating problems:

  • heterogeneity of biomass,

  • excessive dampness of feedstock, and

  • problems with biomass supply.

Despite the problems mentioned above, respondents still wanted to use biomass for energy purposes. A third of the survey participants were planning to increase the amount of combusted biomass in the near future (Survey 2014c).

Biomass: SWOT analysis

Using the obtained information (Survey 2014c) and documents (Behera et al. 2015; Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014; Wiśniewski 2011) SWOT analysis of biomass combustion in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (Table 4).

Table 4 SWOT analysis of biomass in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (Behera et al. 2015; Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Self-government of Pomorskie Voivodeships 2014; Survey 2014c; Wiśniewski 2011)
Full size table

The Pomorskie Voivodeship has well developed agriculture in Poland. Consequently, it has a significant amount of agricultural waste biomass, which could be used for energy purposes. Solid biomass, mainly straw and energy crops biomass, is combusted or co-combusted in numerous boiler rooms and in two power stations. The financial support in the form of green certificates means that a co-combustion technology is developing particularly well (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Survey 2014c).

The weaknesses of combustion and co-combustion of biomass include variable prices of green certificates caused by their oversupply. Farmers still have too little knowledge about growing energy crops, which leads to numerous mistakes during the cultivation. On the other hand, crops plantations require a significant amount of water. In individual households, biomass is combusted in old boilers of low efficiency. Burnt biomass has a varied degree of heterogeneity, which leads to problems with the combustion process (Survey 2014c).

The opportunities of combustion and co-combustion include a possibility of utilising other waste strands of biomass, for example, from maintenance felling of the Pomorskie Voivodeship’s orchards. Biomass combustion has more public approval than coal combustion. Energy/heat generation that is based on biomass means new jobs, especially in the rural areas, where unemployment is the highest (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Survey 2014c).

The threats include variable biomass prices, dependent on supply and crop yield. Even today many boiler rooms and heat and electric power stations are struggling to ensure a continuous supply of biomass. Also very important is to store biomass in a significant amount (Survey 2014c; Wiśniewski 2011).

We think that a series of training workshops on biomass for farmers should be organised in Poland so that they can avoid making the same mistakes. The subject of the workshops should involve the cultivation, harvest and storage of energy crops as well as the harvest and storage of agricultural biomass (e.g. straw). We think that it should be a common practice to sign long-term contracts regarding supplying biomass at a specified price. It is beneficial for both farmers, who know for sure that their biomass will be sold, and for the electric power plant/boiler plant as it offers a secure biomass supply at a previously agreed price. It is important to know that the previous training workshops for the farmers resulted in the appropriate heterogeneity of supplied biomass.

Helioenergy: current state, prospects, SWOT analysis

The Pomorskie Voivodeship is characterised by favourable insolation conditions; solar radiation density can reach there even 1 200 kWh/m/year (Fig. 7). The mean insolation value is 1700 h/year whilst the average for Poland is 1500 h/year. The solar power resources are sufficient enough to meet all the demands of usable hot water production during summer and about 50–60 % of the demand during spring and autumn (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010).

Fig. 7
figure 7

Solar radiation density in the Pomorskie Voivodeship in comparison to the whole of Poland (own data based on (Bastian 2012; Igliński et al. 2013))

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The use of solar power is becoming more widespread in the Pomorskie Voivodeship. This is linked to greater availability of technologies, funding programmes for installing this type of solutions, increasing environmental awareness and rising prices of energy from conventional sources (Bastian 2012). The total area of solar collectors sold in the Pomorskie Voivodeship in 2009 reached 3454 m2, which would approximately be equal to the installed power capacity value of 2418 kW. At the same time, this value was 2.4 % of total area of solar collectors sold in Poland in w 2009 (Starosciuk 2010).

The types of solar collectors that have been sold in the Pomorskie Voivodeship for the last few years are mainly liquid flat plate collectors (75 %) and, to a smaller extent, evacuated solar tube collectors (25 %). The highest number of solar collectors is installed in large cities. Collectors are installed in public use buildings as well as detached houses (Wiśniewski 2011). For example, in the primary school, in the locality of Zaleskie (Fig. 7), 14 solar flat plate collectors were installed, the total active surface of which was 36.96 m2. The amount of obtained energy is about 67 GJ/year. Also, in a school, in the locality of Objazda, 20 solar flat plate collectors were installed, the total active surface of which was 52.8 m2. The amount of obtained energy is about 95 GJ/year. For example, in 2012, a new sport and entertainment arena, a sport hall and swimming and recreational pools were built in Kwidzyn. On the building of the swimming pool, 16 solar collectors were installed with the active surface of 4.5 m2 each. The panels are used to heat water used in the swimming pool equipment (Igliński et al. 2013).

As early as in 2004, the Kwidzyn Association for Supporting Environmental Initiatives “Eco-Initiative” joined the programme promoting renewable energy use in rural communities: “Reach for the Sun”. The programme’s aim is to demonstrate how, using one’s own resources and with limited financial investment, it is possible to construct a solar collector (Igliński et al. 2013).

Helioenergy—prospects

The tendency to use solar power to provide usable hot water in individual households and the public sector (swimming pools, schools, etc.) will continue in the near future. Photovoltaic cells will be used to a much lesser extent. The installations of small power, such as the ones powering traffic lights, road signs, park metres, are more likely to be developed (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010).

According to the Institute for Renewable Energy (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010), the market potential of solar power sector until 2020 in the Pomorskie Voivodeship is 920 TJ, which is linked to 0.7 million m2 of collectors being installed.

Helioenergy: surveys

The people who responded to the survey “Helioenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship—users of solar installations” (Survey 2014d) were mainly the owners of solar collectors; two participants had both solar collectors and photovoltaic panels. These products were installed in the period 2006–2014, with the highest number noted in 2010 (25 %). In most cases, the solar installation co-operated with the central heating boiler. The main reasons for the installation of a solar construction include

  • savings generated due to the use of the installation,

  • funding provided by different institutions, and

  • environmental protection.

The following problems were most often encountered during the installation of a solar construction:

  • the roof was too old, unsuitable for installation of collectors,

  • it was necessary to make the roof waterproof, and

  • hot domestic water installation was inappropriately chosen.

It can be supposed that great popularity of solar collectors contributed to this situation—nearly 50 % of respondents would invest in this type of a device if they had such an opportunity (Survey 2014d).

Helioenergy: SWOT analysis

Using the obtained information (Survey 2014d) and documents (Bastian 2012; Igliński et al. 2013; Wiśniewski 2011), the SWOT analysis of solar power in the Pomorskie Voivodeship was prepared (Table 5).

Table 5 SWOT analysis of helioenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (Bastian 2012; Igliński et al. 2013, Survey 2014d; Wiśniewski 2011)
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The strengths of solar power in the Pomorskie Voivodeship include the capacity of a small solar installation to meet 80–100 % of heat demand to provide hot domestic water during summer months (50–60 % over a year). Solar collectors significantly lower the cost of heating the house. In addition, the solar collectors’ owners stress the reliability of the installation. In the Pomorskie Voivodeship, photovoltaic cells are increasingly used to power traffic lights, road signs and parking metres. It is worth emphasising that solar collectors and photovoltaic cells have a lot of public support; they are considered to be safe and environmentally friendly sources of heat and electric power. It is possible to combine with other installations, e.g. a heat pumps (Survey 2014d; Wiśniewski 2011).

Among the weaknesses, there is the high cost of solar installations, especially the photovoltaic ones. It needs to be mentioned that the prices are decreasing with every year and generous funding attracts prospective investors. A poor supply of solar energy during autumn and winter months necessitates the construction of another heat source (Igliński et al. 2013).

The opportunities of the solar power sector include the fast technological progress improving the efficiency and reducing the cost of solar installations. Solar collectors and photovoltaic panels are increasingly gaining more popularity among the public. It is becoming fashionable to own a solar installation (Igliński et al. 2013; Survey 2014d).

The threat to the development of solar power is the lack of support for micro and small power sources. An individual investor stands virtually no chances of securing funding for a solar installation (Igliński et al. 2013; Survey 2014d).

The solar energy sector, similarly to the coal energy sector, should receive greater financial support. New financial support programmes should be introduced to the already existing ones. This would lead to an increase in demand for collectors/solar panels. A prosumer model of society should be developed, in which everybody could produce power from RES, use it for their own needs and sell it. Polish citizens have a very limited knowledge about solar energy. The education about solar energy (and RES in total) should be introduced to schools (even primary ones) and educational programmes about RES should be transmitted. There should be more free workshops/conferences available to anyone that wants to increase their knowledge/invest in RES.

Geoenergy: current state, prospects, SWOT analysis

The terrestrial heat stream density in Poland shows great differentiation, depending on the geological composition, and varies from 50 to 100 mW/m2. In the Pomorskie Voivodeship the heat stream density reaches from 50 to nearly 70 mW/m2 (Fig. 8) (Igliński et al. 2012b; Szewczyk and Gientka 2009).

Fig. 8
figure 8

The map of the terrestrial heat stream density for the Pomorskie Voivodeship in comparison to the whole of Poland (own data based on (Igliński et al. 2012b; Szewczyk and Gientka 2009))

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The location of the Pomorskie Voivodeship is virtually the same as that of the lower paleozoic sub-basin of the Baltic, which contains geothermal waters of a temperature of between 30 and 120 °C, occurring over the area of 15 × 103 km2 at the depth of 1–4 km. The volume of these waters is estimated to be about 37.5 km3 and prospective thermal power resources that could be harnessed after the waters’ exploitation are estimated to be about 241 Tg of conventional fuel. Using a direct proportion shows that the geothermal energy resources within the Pomorskie Voivodeship are equivalent to 2.94 × 108 tones of conventional fuel. In terms of energy, the exploitation of high-temperature waters is most viable. However, these waters occur very deep, even lower than 3 km, in the Pomorskie Voivodeship. The stretch between the localities Ustka-Słupsk-Łeba has the greatest potential for exploitation. This is the most promising area for carrying out prospecting field work, which could potentially lead to the exploitation of geothermal energy (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010).

Geothermal waters with a temperature of 110–130 °C occur at a depth of 3.2–3.8 km, and the efficiency of a bore-hole can achieve a few tens m3/h. In the shallower area of the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Jurassic basins, in the region of Chojnice-Człuchów, geothermal waters were found at a depth of about 1.0–1.5 km. Their temperature reaches 25–50 °C, and efficiency is low. Consequently, they are not viewed as a promising energy source (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010).

Currently, in the Pomorskie Voivodeship, there is not a single geothermal heat plant operating. However, heat pumps are becoming increasingly popular. Heat pumps are installed in public use buildings (schools, official buildings, churches, etc.) as well as in individual households (Igliński et al. 2012b; Szewczyk and Gientka 2009).

Geoenergy: prospects

The western part of the Pomorskie Voivodeship has the highest geothermal power potential—it is possible there to achieve power at a level of 2.5–3 MW. The construction of geothermal heat plants is feasible in cities, where prospective heat consumers are located (Igliński et al. 2012b; Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010).

In the near future, the market for heat pumps will continue to develop further. The observation of the heat pump market leads to a conclusion that they tend to be installed in newly constructed or renovated buildings. It is estimated that the number of various types of heat pumps installed in the voivodeship reaches a few hundred items per year. In the near future, this number could even rise by 1000 items per year (power of about 10 MW) (Igliński et al. 2012b).

Heat pomps: surveys

About 10 % of respondents had heat pumps installed before 2000, 30 % between 2000 and 2005, and the rest after 2005. These are the pumps produced by well-known companies, most often a compression type: brine–water, water–water and water–air. The respondents had the installation costs that varied between 20,000 and 200,000 PLN (on average 50,000–70,000 PLN). The costs varied depending on the number and type of pumps installed as well as the modernisation of the heating system (Survey 2014e).

The respondents used the following types of lower heat sources: the ground (most often), lakes, water from the pipe-network, air. The upper heat sources included radiators, floor heating systems, communal warm water from the network, pools and fan coil units. Half of the respondents stated that their pumps worked on their own whilst in the remaining group, heat pumps worked together with a solar panel (most often) or a wood-fuelled furnace or gas boiler. Almost all respondents were satisfied with their heat pumps (Survey 2014e).

The majority of respondents did not indicate any problems related to heat pump installation; however, a few did highlight following difficulties:

  • land slides in excavation,

  • problems with installing a heat pump, and

  • the lack of subsidies for the investment.

About 30 % of respondents were planning to install heat pumps in the future. The majority, however, thought that it would not be necessary as the currently working heat pump fully met the heat demand. The respondents consistently emphasised the faultless operation of heat pumps and low maintenance needs (Survey 2014e).

Geoenergy: SWOT analysis

Using the obtained information (Survey 2014e) and papers (Igliński et al. 2012b; Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Szewczyk and Gientka 2009), the SWOT analysis of geothermal energy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship was prepared (Table 6).

Table 6 SWOT analysis of geoenergy in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (Igliński et al. 2012b; Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Survey 2014e; Szewczyk and Gientka 2009)
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The stable production cost, not dependent on the prices of energy carriers, is one of the strengths of harnessing heat by means of heat pumps. In addition, the installation has a minimal impact on the environment. The price of geothermal heat does not depend on unstable prices of conventional fuels, which is important. Geothermal plants are small installations and do not exert a negative impact on the environment or landscape, which means there is huge public support for them. Hot geothermal water can be used for balneology and recreation purposes (Igliński et al. 2012b; Survey 2014e).

The construction and start-up of a geothermal heat plant/heat pump system require a lot of determination and substantial financial means, which effectively discourages prospective investors. Geothermal waters in Poland are characterised by high mineralisation, which exacerbates the corrosion of machinery. In extreme cases, there is a problem with pumping geothermal water back to the earth. The greatest problem of the Polish geothermal energy sector is the lack of green certificates, which are available to other RES (Survey 2014e; Szewczyk and Gientka 2009).

Similarly to other technologies of RES, the geothermal power sector is experiencing technological progress, which lowers investment costs as well as geological risk. The thermal energy sector in the Pomorskie Voivodeship could use geothermal heat to solve the problem of high air pollution resulting from “low emission” as well as exploitation of old coal-fired boilers. Many towns in the Pomorskie Voivodeship are considering the construction of thermal swimming (Igliński et al. 2012b; Survey 2014e).

The greatest threat to the geothermal energy sector/heat pump sector in Poland is the lack of effective promotional policy. An average Polish person does not even know that geothermal water could heat his or her house in an environmentally friendly way (Office of the Marshall of the Pomorskie Voivodeship 2010; Survey 2014e).

Constructing a geothermal plant/heat pump system necessitates a significant amount of funding. Thus, the state/local authorities should support such an investment. This is especially so as the operational costs of a geothermal plant/heat pump system are lower than those of a coal-fired boiler plant/heat and power plant. Similarly to other types of RES, the geothermal energy sector should also be supported by means of green certificates. The negative myths about geothermal power are still abundant in the Polish society (e.g. contamination of drinking water). Thus, RES should be discussed as early as in school. Educational programmes, workshops and conferences are also needed.

Conclusions

The renewable energy sector in both the Pomorskie Voivodeship and Poland is still in the initial stage of its development. Despite this, the renewable energy technology is already well controlled. Every year the number of investors investing their money RES is rising. Poland as well as the Pomorskie Voivodeship has a large renewable energy potential, mainly from biomass.

The weaknesses include changeable certificate prices, a long investment period and unclear legal regulations. Among the opportunities of the sector, there is a fact that renewable energy technologies lead to increasingly more efficient energy generation at decreasing prices. In addition, the development of the renewable energy sector creates more jobs. Among the threats, there are lack of the Act on renewable energy sources and lack of renewable energy sources promotion (January 2015).

The conducted SWOT analysis has led to the conclusion of the fast development RES in the Pomorskie Voivodeship (and Poland) is strongly depened on

  • the proposed Act on renewable energy sources being adopted,

  • legal regulations being made simpler,

  • increased financial subsidies for the sector development,

  • introduction of guaranteed certificate prices, and

  • education of the public, investors, developers and decision-makers.

The increased use of renewable energy sources will foster energy security of Poland, create new jobs and reduce emissions generated by the economic sector. The transition from the coal power sector to the non-emission one is a long lasting process, which requires a good political and economic strategy as well as ensuring an appropriate legal basis, funding sources and operating resources. It is very important not to focus on one selected renewable energy technology, but to establish a balanced structure of renewable energy sources.