Keywords

8.1 Introduction

Potato, a member of the nightshade family Solanaceae and order Polemoniales, is an annual herbaceous dicotyledon as far as its vegetative and flowering habits are concerned, but it may be regarded as a perennial as far its capacity for reproduction employing the tubers is considered. Worldwide, potato is the third most important food crop after rice and wheat (FAO 2011). It is grown in 149 countries from latitudes of 65°N to 50°S and from altitudes ranging from sea level to 4000 m (Paul and Ezekiel 2013). It is comprehensively cultivated in China, Russian Federation, Ukraine, Poland, Ireland, Great Britain, Germany, Netherlands, France, Spain, South America, India, and the USA (Mukherjee 2017; Wang et al. 2020). The crop originates from the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes in South America, specifically in Lake Titicaca Basin on the border between Peru-Bolivia. The crop was introduced in India in the mid-seventeenth century probably by Portuguese traders or British missionaries. Potato is one of the principal cash crops of India. The crop covers an area of about 1.86 million ha with an annual production of 41.46 million tons (Mt) with average productivity of 23.12 t/ha in India (2014–2015). West Bengal is the world’s highest per day potato productivity state (300 kg/day) and ranks second after U.P in terms of area and productivity (32.96 t/ha). Nutritionally, potato is second to soybean for the amount of protein/ha, with the major storage protein being patatin, one of the most nutritionally balanced plant proteins known and regarded as a wholesome food (Liedl et al. 1987). It contains water (75–80%), carbohydrate (22.6%), starch (14%), sugar (2%), protein (1.6%), fat (0.1%), fiber (0.4%), minerals (0.6%), vitamins (vitamin C rich 17 mg), and energy (97 kcal) (Mukherjee 2017). Besides, it is also a good source of vitamin B (B1, B3, and B6) and minerals such as potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium, and contains folate, pantothenic acid, and riboflavin. It is also a source of essential amino acids like lysine, leucine, tryptophan, and isoleucine. Moreover, potato is low in fat. The crop is also a moderate source of iron, and its high vitamin C content fosters iron absorption. It also contains antioxidants, which also play a critical role in preventing diseases related to aging, and dietary fiber ultimately benefits health.

In the emerging global economic order, the development of agricultural crops is witnessing a rapid transition to the production of agricultural commodities, with potatoes appearing to be a significant crop, ready to sustain and diversify food production in the new millennium. Temperature and unpredictable drought are the two most important abiotic factors, thus affecting world food securities. In developed countries, especially in Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States, productivity of potato has decreased by 1% per annum over the last 20 years. However, output in developing countries has expanded at an average rate of 5% per year (Falloon and Betts 2010; Wadas and Dziugieł 2020). Asian countries, especially China and India, stoke up this growth. In the recent past, the developing countries share 52% of global potato output stood surpassing that of the developed world. This is a great achievement, considering the share of potato in global production was little more than 20%  twenty years ago in the developing countries (Collier et al. 2008). Globally, production and consumption of potato is steadily increasing than the global population. Fresh potato consumption, once the pillar of world potato utilization, is declining in many countries, especially in developed regions. This is mainly because of the harsh weather condition which alarms the selling price. Thus, it becomes a critical threat to future food security (Rana et al. 2020; Mukherjee 2002).

Increasing the production of potato in adverse conditions would require innovative technology to supplement conventional methods that are unable to prevent yield losses. Various agronomic practices not only improve the soil quality but also enhance the yield of potato. Application of N in two split doses, i.e. half at the time of planting and rest at the time of earthing up to produce higher yields and higher N recovery (Du et al. 2020). Equitable use of major and micronutrients plays an important role in improving the quality of produce besides good yield. Integrated nutrient management must for a crop like a potato. Moreover, the proper use of insecticides has proven effective when used as an additional tool in integrated pest management (IPM) practices. The use of bio-resources such as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and other conservation farming practices also play an important role to restore soil and enhancing soil health and play an important role to combat climate change issues.

This chapter focuses on the major factors affecting potato production, various components for its management like integrated nutrient management (INM), integrated pest management (IPM), conservation farming, and cultural practices to improve soil quality that helps to restore degraded soils which leads to enhance its production and yield. It also describes various management practices for sustainable production.

8.2 Factors Constraining Potato Production

Many factors affect the productivity of potato. As potato (edible and reproductive part) is the semi-perishable tuber, there are more chances for disease to accumulate in each planting season which ultimately affects its yielding potential. Other constraints such as traditional potato production system, scarce germplasm resources for cultivar development, shortage of high-quality seed potatoes, limited knowledge on postharvest handling of the product, and poor technology transfer systems also hinder its productivity (Adane et al. 2010). Moreover, storage and transportation technologies are also affecting potato production, as they are the major constraints for the healthy development of the potato industry. Several factors are affecting the growth and production of potato which are listed in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1 Various factors affecting potato production
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8.3 Agronomic Management Practices

An agronomic practice alludes to the scientific investigation of soil management and crop production. It includes the water system and the use of herbicides, pesticides, and compost. Agronomy stresses staple sustenance crops, for instance, corn, rice, potato, beans, and wheat, which are made on a far-reaching scale and address the foundation of our human sustenance supply. Various agronomic practices that help in the sustainable production of potato presented in Fig. 8.1.

Fig. 8.1
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Agronomic management practices for sustainable potato production

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8.3.1 Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

Integrated nutrient management is agronomic practice for the adjustment and maintenance of soil fertility and provides nutrients to the plant at an optimum level for sustaining crop productivity through optimization of all possible resources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. This practice of nutrient management achieved greater significance in the last few years because of two reasons. First, fertilizer production in India at the present level is not enough to meet the entire plant nutrient requirement to meet productivity. Secondly, long-term experiments (LTEs) conducted in India or elsewhere reveal that neither the organic sources nor the fertilizers in isolation can achieve sustained production under intensive cropping (Serderov et al. 2020). The major components of INM are fertilizers, organic manures, legumes, crop residues, and bio-fertilizers which are explained below.

8.3.1.1 Chemical Fertilizers

Fertilizers contribute to be the most important component of INM. To supply large amounts of nutrients in intensive cropping with high productivity there is increased independence on fertilizers. Moreover, their consumption is not only inadequate but also imbalanced. The N:P2O5: K2O use ratio is quite wide, whereas application of micronutrients and K, S is usually ignored. The domestic production of fertilizer is not sufficient to meet the requirements. On the other hand, problems like global price hike of fertilizers and raw materials would not permit fertilizer import in large quantities leading to a big gap between fertilizer supply and consumption. While organics and bio-fertilizers are expected to bridge a part of this gap, the effective use of fertilizers in narrowing the nutrient supply gap also needs greater emphasis. Fertilizer utilization by the crops varies from 30 to 50% in the case of N, 15–20% in the case of P, and less than 5% in the case of micronutrients. Thus a significant amount of applied nutrients is lost through various pathways. Increased nutrient use efficiency should be a prioritized area of research for restoration and improvement of soil health and minimizing the cost of crop production.

8.3.1.1.1 Nitrogen

The amount of nitrogen applied to a potato crop varies from 100–300 kg/ha depending on the soil characteristics and purpose of the crop. However, excessive or high nitrogen doses stimulate haulm growth, delay tuber formation, and ultimately affect tuber quality (low dry matter content, high reducing sugar content, and high protein and nitrate content). However, a split application might be preferred if there is a risk of leaching (i.e., heavy watering on light soils) or scorching (application of large quantities of fertilizer under dry conditions).

8.3.1.1.2 Phosphorus

Phosphorus imparts to the early development of the crop and tuberization. It enhances the crop’s dry matter content and ameliorates the tuber’s storage quality. Usually, more than 100 kg/ha is applied, while on phosphorus-fixing soils much higher doses are preferred.

8.3.1.1.3 Potassium

Potassium not only boosts yields but also improves tuber quality of potato (size, starch content, and storability). An ample supply of potassium can also help to minimize internal blackening and mechanical damage and has been associated with increased stress tolerance.

8.3.1.1.4 Magnesium

Attention should be paid to magnesium requirements, especially when potatoes are grown on light acid soils. Inadequate application of potassium and nitrogen in the form of ammonium reduces the uptake of magnesium.

8.3.1.1.5 Calcium

Potatoes are tolerant of soil acidity, hydrogen ion concentration of 4.8 leads to crop failure due to calcium deficiency. Liming may be necessary. Seed potatoes need to be grown in soils with sufficient calcium. Seed tubers which are calcium deficient are failed to sprout properly.

8.3.1.1.6 Foliar Fertilizers

Plants take nutrients more efficiently through stomata in their leaves as compared to root. Foliar fertilizers contain both macro and micronutrients. They are absorbed by the leaves and have an immediate effect on plant growth. They may help to overcome apparent nutrient deficiencies, especially micronutrients, and support plant recovery following stress events, such as frost and drought.

8.3.1.2 Organic Manures

Organic manures like FYM, urban compost, crop residues, human excreta, rural compost, sewage-sludge, press mud, and other agro-industrial wastes have large nutrient potential. Traditionally FYM and compost have been the most important manures for maintaining soil fertility and ensuring yield stability. Other organic sources of nutrients such as non-edible oilcake and wastes from various industries are also there. Besides, there are several industrial by-products and municipal wastes with fair nutrient potential. However, these nutrient-carriers have not been properly evaluated to establish their fertilizer equivalents. Thus, there is an urgent need to integrate these sources depending on their availability in different crops and cropping systems. The industrial by-products like spent-wash from a distillery, molasses, press mud, etc., from the sugar industry and wastes from other food processing industries have good manorial value. Sulphitation press mud (SPM) has a great potential to supply nutrients and has favorable effects on soil properties. SPM has assumed great importance as a nutrient supplement in sugarcane-ratoon-wheat and other intensive cropping systems of the sugarcane growing areas. Sewage-sludge and municipal solid wastes (MSW) are also important nutrient sources available for integration with fertilizer inputs, but proper cautions have to be taken to avoid any potential threat of pathogens and heavy metal load. These nutrient sources have lost their relative importance over time in crop production as they are bulky in nature with low nutrient content and short in supply. Although, cost and their limited supply made it necessary to search for alternative and renewable sources of plant nutrients leading to major interest in organic recycling. Less than 50% of the manurial potential of cattle dung is utilized at present, a major proportion is lost as fuel and droppings in non-agricultural areas. Cattle dung and other farmyard wastes recycled back to the soil as manure, substantial nutrients are lost due to inadequate methods of manure preparation and its amount of application. Organic manures not only supply macro and micronutrients, but it also help in improving the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soils.

8.3.1.3 Legumes

Legumes are considered as soil fertility restorers because of their ability to obtain N from the atmosphere in symbiosis with rhizobia. Legumes are a major ingredient of INM when grown especially for fodder or grain in a cropping system, or when introduced for green manuring. Legumes grown as green manure, forage, or grain crops improved the productivity of the rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS) and rejuvenated soil fertility (Yadav et al. 2000).

8.3.1.4 Crop Residues

Crop residues have several competitive uses and are considered as an important component of INM. However, in North-West India mechanical harvesting is still practiced and the leftover residue is used in the field as a part of nutrient supply. Moreover, cereal crop residues are valuable cattle-feed and it can be used to supplement the fertilizers. Disposal of rice straw has been a great concern in Trans and Upper Gangetic Plains. In these areas, farmers prefer to burn all these residues in situ which causes environmental pollution on one hand and loss of potential nutrients on the other hand. Although, residue recycling in the field helps to build stable organic matter in the soil and also helps to sustain the yield. Usually, stubbles varies from 0.5 to 1.5 t/ha in traditional harvesting methods. However, its amount is much higher in practices like mechanical harvesting. Stubbles produced from coarse cereals, i.e. sorghum, maize, pearl millet, etc., are difficult to decompose and are normally collected and burnt during land preparation causing significant loss of plant nutrients.

8.3.1.5 Bio-Fertilizers

Bio-fertilizers are the materials containing living or latent cells of agriculturally beneficial microorganisms that play an important role in improving soil fertility and crop productivity due to their ability to fix atmospheric N, solubilize/mobilize P, and decompose farm waste resulting in the release of plant nutrients (Giri et al. 2019). The benefit from these microorganisms depends on their number and efficiency which, however, is governed by soil and environmental factors. Bacterial cultures, i.e. Rhizobium, Azospirillum, and Azotobacter have the potential to fix atmospheric N which in turn escalates N supply to the crops. Bacterial cultures of Pseudomonas and Bacillus and fungal culture of Aspergillus help in the conversion of insoluble P into usable forms, hence, improve phosphate availability to the crops. Similarly, Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (AM) fungi increase uptake of P with larger soil volume. Rhizobium is the primary symbiotic fixer of N and it is the most well-known bacterial species. These bacteria lead to the formation of lumps or nodules where the N fixation takes place by infecting the roots of leguminous plants. The bacterium’s enzyme is a rich source of N to the host plant to furnish nutrients and energy for the activities of the bacterium. The Rhizobium-legume association can fix up to 100–300 kg N/ha in one crop season and certain situations leave substantial N for the crop. This symbiotic association could meet 80% of the N requirement of the legume crop. Azotobacter free-living N-fixer imparts positive benefits to the crops through a small increase in N input from BNF, development, and branching of roots, production of plant growth hormones, enhancement in the uptake of NO−, NH+, H PO−, K+, and Fe+, improved water status of the plants, increased nitrate-reductase activity, and production of antifungal compounds. In irrigated wheat, a significant response to Azotobacter inoculation was recorded in a large number of on-farm trials. Azotobacter contribute 20–25 kg N/ha. Azospirillum fixes N by colonizes with the root mass. Hence, shows positive interaction with applied N in several field crops with an average response equivalent to 15–20 kg/ha of applied N. Several strains of P solubilizing bacteria and fungi have been isolated, and inoculation with P solubilizing microbial cultures is known to increase the dissolution of sparingly soluble P in the soil. Integrated use of microbial cultures with low-grade rock phosphate might add 30–35 kg P2O5/ha. Soil inoculation with Pseudomonas striata showed a residual effect in succeeding maize on alluvial soil of Delhi, besides increasing grain yield of wheat.

In recent years, K mobilizing bio-fertilizers (KMB) and Zn solubilizing bio-fertilizers (ZnSB) have been added in order to increase the solubility of K and Zn in soil, respectively. There is an extensive need to assess bacteria which play important role in soil solubility (K and Zn). Also, liquid bio-fertilizers have proved superior over conventional (solid) carrier-based ones. Blue-green algae (BGA) is also another important source of N to wetland rice. As per the estimates, N fixed by BGA inoculation is varied from 20–30 kg N ha-1. Various field studies have also shown that the incorporation of Azolla would allow N applications to be reduced by at least 30–40 kg/ha (Dwivedi et al. 2004).

8.3.2 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Pest problems may vary from field conditions and seasons because of differences in soil type, cultural practices, cropping history, cultivar, and the nature of surrounding land. Market choice and market conditions also affect the feasibility of management because they determine how a crop must be handled and the value of that crop. Four components are essential to any IPM program: (1) Accurate pest identification, (2) field monitoring, (3) control action guidelines, and (4) effective management methods (Fry 1982).

Almost all pest management tools, including pesticides, are effective only against certain pest species, one must know which pests are present and which are likely to appear. By monitoring, one can get information to make management decisions. Monitoring includes keeping records of weather, crop development, and management practices as well as incidence and levels of pest infestations. Control action guidelines indicate when management actions including pesticide applications are needed to abstain losses due to pests or other stresses.

8.3.3 Conservation Farming

Conservation farming aims at enhancing natural biological processes both above and below ground. The major role of conservation farming is (1) Minimization of mechanical soil disturbances, (2) permanent organic soil cover, (3) diversified crop rotations. By minimizing soil disturbance, it creates a vertical macro-pore structure in the soil, which facilitates the infiltration of excess rainwater into the subsoil and thus improves the aeration of deeper soil layers and further facilitates root penetration.

8.3.4 Soil Conservation

Soil erosion is a major constraint that continues to threaten the sustainability of both subsistence and commercial agriculture. Cultivation of potato requires intensive soil tillage practices throughout the cropping period, which ultimately leads to soil erosion, degradation, and leaching of nitrates. The use of mulch at planting and the “notill” land preparation method is recommended to reduce soil degradation, erosion, and nitrate pollution, and to restore degraded soils aided good potato yields with less requirement of fertilizer. The mulch helps to protect the soil from erosion in the first weeks of the crop. Although mulching reduces the risks of soil erosion and nitrate leaching, it may have some adverse effects (e.g., excessive moisture and reduced soil temperature leading to retarded plant emergence). Hence, it should not be a blanket recommendation. The no-tillage potato is grounded into the soil surface and then covered with a thick layer of mulch, preferably straw, which is fairly stable and does not rot quickly.

8.4 Cultural Practices

Potato tuber develops entirely underground, its quality, shape, disease, and yield are usually influenced by factors like moisture content and humus, texture, and temperature of the soil in which it grows. All these factors render soils for potato production. Therefore, to cope with the adverse effects which affect potato production, it is not only desirable but imperative that proper cultural practices involving strict cognizance of the best methods should be adopted for improving soil conditions. The various cultural practices which enhance potato production are depicted in Fig. 8.2.

Fig. 8.2
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Cultural practices for sustainable potato production

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8.5 Management Methods

8.5.1 Seed Quality and Certification

Pests can be transmitted in infected seed tubers, including blackleg, bacterial ring rot, late blight, common scab, potato viruses, Rhizoctonia, powdery scab, root-knot nematodes, silver scurf, and wilt diseases. To prevent these problems, one must start with healthy stock (Agios 1997). Techniques like micro-propagation and stem cutting have been developed to obtain pest-free potato plants for propagation and production of certified seed tubers. Disease-free stem cuttings or tiny pieces of meristem tissue are cultured and propagated under sterile conditions to produce large numbers of disease-free plantlets or mini tubers (Anonymous 2008).

8.5.2 Biological Control

Any activity of a parasite, predator, or pathogen that keeps a pest population lower than it would be considered as biological control. One of the first assessments that should be made in an IPM program is the potential role of natural enemies and hyper-parasites in controlling pests. Control by natural enemies and hyper-parasites is inexpensive, effective, self-perpetuating, and not disruptive of natural balances in the crop ecosystem.

Bacteria combative to Erwinia carotovora are being developed as seed piece treatments for abbreviating seed piece decay and blackleg. Among rhizobacterial Agrobacterium radiobacter, Bacillus subtilus, and Pseudomonas spp. are antagonistic to potato cyst nematodes (Globodera pallida and G. rostochiensis) though Pasteuria penetrans attach PCN (Kerry et al. 2003). Larkin (2007) reported that soil-application of aerated compost tea (ACT) and the combination of ACT with a mixture of beneficial microorganisms reduced stem canker, black scurf and common scab on tubers by 18–33% and 20–23% yield increase in barley/ryegrass rotation, but not in the other rotations. Table 8.2 depicts the effect of organic sources and chemical fertilizers on growth parameters of potato. 

Table 8.2 Effect of organic sources and chemical fertilizers on growth parameters of potato
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8.5.3 Resistant Cultivars

Plant breeding is one of the most important tools available for both the production of the best crop and the management of pests. Pest management is one of the important factors that must be taken into account while choosing cultivars. Cultivars resistant or tolerant of the disease can help reduce losses caused by some soil-borne pathogens and provide long-term, economical protection from conditions that otherwise could inflict severe losses every season (Table 8.3).

Table 8.3 Biological control of bacterial and fungal disease of potato
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Part of every breeding program is the search for resistance to serious diseases, disorders, and nematode pests. Resistance to insect pests is being investigated. New potato breeding selections are assessed for resistance to several viruses, leaf-roll net necrosis, root-knot nematodes, Verticillium wilt, scab, blackleg, early blight, and several physiological disorders (Hooker 1983).

8.5.4 Chemical Control with Pesticides

Adequate use of pesticides can not only provide economical protection from pests but also reduce significant losses. In many situations, they are the only feasible means of control. Excessive use of pesticides results in crop damage and hazards to health and the environment. In an IPM, pesticides are used only when field monitoring indicates they are needed to prevent losses (Table 8.4).

Table 8.4 Detailed description of potato diseases (bacterial, fungal, and viral) and their management
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Fungicides reduce damage caused by certain foliar pathogens, i.e. late blight, powdery mildew, and severe early blight. Fungicides usually applied before infection occurs or when the disease just begins to develop. Soil fumigants might be used to control nematodes or Verticillium.

8.6 Conclusion

The widely-cultivated potato, S. tuberosum L., is one of the world’s principal food crops. Over the next four decades, the global agriculture industry faces major challenges, as projections suggest that the global population will be between 8.0 and 10.4 billion people, with a median estimate of 9.1 billion. Recently, released studies estimate that worldwide agricultural production will need to grow by 70% over an approximated 45-year interval (between 2005–2007 and 2050), and by 100% in developing countries. The major challenges in sustainable potato production are varying economies of scale, are heterogeneity in soil resources, nutrient availability, pest resistance, weather constraints, demographic changes, and shifts in the availability of arable lands. High-resolution geospatial studies can help in the identification of trends and patterns in local to regional scale commercial production environment, which can in turn encourage the broader adoption of adaptive management strategies that not only increase yield but also promote sustainable land use. Global environmental change (GEC) will lead to elevated temperature in many years, which will in turn involve manipulation of agronomic practices in order to improve crop efficiency. Worldwide, various researchers believed locally-to-regionally specified sustainable and environmentally responsible potato production systems will help meet the challenges for long-term and country-driven food security and poverty alleviation.