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Current Evidence for Disease Prevention and Treatment by Protocatechuic Acid (PCA) and Its Precursor Protocatechuic Aldehyde (PCAL) in Animals and Humans

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Plant Antioxidants and Health

Part of the book series: Reference Series in Phytochemistry ((RSP))

Abstract

Protocatechuic acid (PCA) and its precursor protocatechuic aldehyde (PCAL) are widely distributed polyphenols found in edible plants, fruits, and vegetables. PCA is the major human metabolite of cyanidin-glucosides derived from anthocyanins (ACN). Evidence suggests, that both PCA and PCAL influence the profile of the gut microbiota which contributes to the improvement of health benefits for humans. As agents used by plants in the self-defense, they have antibacterial and antiviral activity. Consumption of these substances is associated with lowered risk of some chronic conditions such as cardiovascular diseases. In aging-related states such as neurodegeneration, a reduction in amyloid deposition associated with Alzheimer’s disease was observed. Both PCA and PCAL have been shown to have antioxidant activity in vitro and in vivo, and beneficial effects in chronic inflammation. Both have been shown to be effective in cancer chemoprevention. The preventive effect of PCA in experimental models of the metabolic syndrome is of great importance, thanks to the antidiabetic effect and reducing obesity. PCA and PCAL show antiatherogenic activity; moreover, PCA acts as an anti-aggregating agent, reducing the risk of thrombosis. In preclinical studies, a beneficial effect of PCA in inhibiting osteoporosis has been found. It should be taken into account, that phenolic acids as dietary components, inter alia, show anticancer activity by reversing epigenetics-related changes, that lead to the activation of oncogenes and inactivation of suppressive genes.

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Abbreviations

3-MT:

3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenethylamine, 3-methoxytyramine

ABCA1 :

ATP-binding cassette transporter A1

ABCG1:

ATP-binding cassette transporter G1

ACN:

Anthocyanins

AGE:

Advanced glycation end products

Akt (PKB):

Protein kinase B

AMPK:

Adenosine 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase

ANF:

Atrial natriuretic factor

ApoE:

Apolipoprotein E

ARE:

Antioxidant response element

ATF:

Activating transcription factor

Bak 1:

Bcl-2 homologous antagonist/killer

Bax:

Apoptosis regulator BAX/bcl-2-like protein 4

Bcl-2:

B-cell lymphoma 2

Bcl-xL:

B-cell lymphoma-extra large

BdNF :

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor

C3G:

Cyanidin-3-O-β-glucoside

Casp:

Caspase; cysteine-aspartic acid protease

CAT:

Catalase

CDK:

Cyclin-dependent kinase

c-Fos:

Proto-oncogene c-Fos

Cmax :

Maximum plasma concentration

COMT:

Catechol-O-methyl transferase

CREB:

cAMP-response element binding protein

c-Src:

Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src

DNA:

Deoxyribonucleic acid

DNMT:

DNA methyltransferase

GPx:

Glutathione peroxidase

GSK:

Glycogen synthase kinase

HDAC:

Histone deacetylase

HMBG 1:

High-mobility group box 1 protein

ICAM-1:

Intercellular adhesion molecule 1

IRE1α:

Inositol-requiring enzyme 1 α

JAK:

Janus kinase

JNK:

c-Jun N-terminal kinase

LC-MS-MS:

Liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

LDH:

Lactic dehydrogenase

LDL:

Low-density lipoprotein

MAPK:

Mitogen-activated protein kinase

MHCβ:

Major histocompatibility complex with β chain

miRNA:

MicroRNA

MPTP:

1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine

mTOR:

Mechanistic target of rapamycin

NFATc1:

Nuclear factor of activated T cells 1

NFκB:

Nuclear factor kappa B

NO:

Nitric oxide

Nrf2:

Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2

p27KIP1:

Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor

p38:

MAPKp38 mitogen-activated protein kinase

p65:

Transcription factor p65

PARP:

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase

PCA:

Protocatechuic acid

PCAL:

Protocatechuic aldehyde

PDGF:

Platelet-derived growth factor

PERK:

Protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase

PI3K:

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase

PKC:

Protein kinase CRAGE

PPAR-ϒ:

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma

PTX3:

Pentraxin-3

RAGE:

Receptor for advanced glycation end products

RANK:

Receptor activator of nuclear factor-κb

RANKL:

Receptor activator of nuclear factor-κb ligand

RCT:

Reverse cholesterol transport

ROS:

Reactive oxygen species

Sir 2:

Silent information regulator 2

SIRT1:

NAD-dependent deacetylase sirtuin-1

SLC7A5:

Large neutral amino acids transporter small subunit 1

SOD:

Superoxide dismutase

STAT:

Signal transducer and activator of transcription

TNF-α:

Tumor necrosis factor alpha

TRAF6:

Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6

TROLOX:

Equivalent antioxidant capacity

α-SMA:

α-smooth muscle actin

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Declaration of Interest Statement

The author declare that she has no competing interests. This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Centre for Preclinical Research and Technology CePT, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland

    Ewa Widy-Tyszkiewicz

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  1. Ewa Widy-Tyszkiewicz
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Correspondence to Ewa Widy-Tyszkiewicz .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, Kraków, Poland

    Halina Maria Ekiert

  2. Department of Botany, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, India

    Kishan Gopal Ramawat

  3. Department of Botany, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, India

    Jaya Arora

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  1. Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, Medical College, Kraków, Poland

    Halina Ekiert

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Widy-Tyszkiewicz, E. (2022). Current Evidence for Disease Prevention and Treatment by Protocatechuic Acid (PCA) and Its Precursor Protocatechuic Aldehyde (PCAL) in Animals and Humans. In: Ekiert, H.M., Ramawat, K.G., Arora, J. (eds) Plant Antioxidants and Health. Reference Series in Phytochemistry. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78160-6_36

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