Abstract
Carotenoids relevance as natural pigments is mainly due to their uses as colorants, feed supplements, nutraceuticals and for medical, cosmetic, and biotechnological purposes. Since they have putative health beneficial effects, the demand and market of carotenoids are growing significantly. There is a diversity of natural and synthetic carotenoids, but only a few of them are commercially produced, including carotenes (β-carotene and lycopene) and xanthophylls (astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, and capsanthin). Some biotechnological processes for carotenoids production were established some years ago, but new strains and technologies are being developed nowadays for carotenoids widely in demand. This chapter shows a revision of the main carotenoids from a commercial point of view.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Saini RK, Keum YS (2017) Progress in microbial carotenoids production. Indian J Microbiol 57:129–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-016-0637-x
Lichtenthaler HK, Buschmann C (2001) Chlorophylls and carotenoids: measurement and characterization by UV-VIS spectroscopy. Curr Protocol Food Anal Chem. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471142913.faf0403s01
Barredo J, García-Estrada C, Kosalkova K, Barreiro C (2017) Biosynthesis of astaxanthin as a main carotenoid in the heterobasidiomycetous yeast Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous. J Fungi 3:44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3030044
Bhosale P, Bernstein PS (2005) Microbial xanthophylls. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 68:445–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-005-0032-8
Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (2004) Carotenoids. Springer Basel AG, Basel. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-7836-4
Feltl L, Pacakova V, Stulik K, Volka K (2005) Reliability of carotenoid analyses: a review. Curr Anal Chem 1:93–102. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573411052948424
Galasso C, Corinaldesi C, Sansone C (2017) Carotenoids from marine organisms: biological functions and industrial applications. Antioxidants (Basel, Switzerland) 6(96). https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox6040096
Fiedor J, Burda K (2014) Potential role of carotenoids as antioxidants in human health and disease. Nutrients 6:466–488. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6020466
Khachik F (2006) Distribution and metabolism of dietary carotenoids in humans as a criterion for development of nutritional supplements. Pure Appl Chem 78:1551–1557. https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200678081551
Parker RS (1989) Carotenoids in human blood and tissues. J Nutr 119:101–104
Young AJ (1991) The photoprotective role of carotenoids in higher plants. Physiol Plant 83:702–708. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1991.tb02490.x
Blomhoff R, Blomhoff HK (2006) Overview of retinoid metabolism and function. J Neurobiol 66:606–630. https://doi.org/10.1002/neu.20242
Walter MH, Strack D (2011) Carotenoids and their cleavage products: biosynthesis and functions. Nat Prod Rep 28:663–692. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0np00036a
Vílchez C, Forján E, Cuaresma M et al (2011) Marine carotenoids: biological functions and commercial applications. Mar Drugs 9:319–333. https://doi.org/10.3390/md9030319
Hammond BR, Renzi LM (2013) Carotenoids. Adv Nutr 4:474–476. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.113.004028.part
Sathasivam R, Ki J-S (2018) A review of the biological activities of microalgal carotenoids and their potential use in healthcare and cosmetic industries. Mar Drugs 16(1):E26. https://doi.org/10.3390/md16010026
Granado F, Olmedilla B, Blanco I (2003) Nutritional and clinical relevance of lutein in human health. Br J Nutr 90:487. https://doi.org/10.1079/BJN2003927
Masaki H (2010) Role of antioxidants in the skin: anti-aging effects. J Dermatol Sci 58:85–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2010.03.003
Breithaupt DR (2008) Xanthophylls in poultry feeding. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids, Vol. 4 Natural functions. Birkhäuser Basel, Basel, pp 255–264
Higuera-Ciapara I, Félix-Valenzuela L, Goycoolea FM (2006) Astaxanthin: a review of its chemistry and applications. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 46:185–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408690590957188
Schweiggert RM, Carle R (2016) Carotenoid production by bacteria, microalgae, and fungi. In: Kaczor A, Baranska M (eds) Carotenoids: Nutrition Analysis Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, pp 217–240
Wang X, Willén R, Wadström T (2000) Astaxanthin-rich algal meal and vitamin C inhibit Helicobacter pylori infection in BALB/cA mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44:2452–2457
Park JS, Chyun JH, Kim YK et al (2010) Astaxanthin decreased oxidative stress and inflammation and enhanced immune response in humans. Nutr Metab (Lond) 7:18. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-7-18
Yasui Y, Hosokawa M, Mikami N et al (2011) Dietary astaxanthin inhibits colitis and colitis-associated colon carcinogenesis in mice via modulation of the inflammatory cytokines. Chem Biol Interact 193:79–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2011.05.006
Fassett RG, Coombes JS (2009) Astaxanthin, oxidative stress, inflammation and cardiovascular disease. Future Cardiol 5:333–342. https://doi.org/10.2217/fca.09.19
Li J, Zhu D, Niu J et al (2011) An economic assessment of astaxanthin production by large scale cultivation of Haematococcus pluvialis. Biotechnol Adv 29:568–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.04.001
Comhaire FH, El Garem Y, Mahmoud A et al (2005) Combined conventional/antioxidant “Astaxanthin” treatment for male infertility: a double blind, randomized trial. Asian J Androl 7:257–262. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7262.2005.00047.x
Hussein G, Goto H, Oda S et al (2006) Antihypertensive potential and mechanism of action of astaxanthin: III. Antioxidant and histopathological effects in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Biol Pharm Bull 29:684–688
Tominaga K, Hongo N, Karato M, Yamashita E (2012) Cosmetic benefits of astaxanthin on humans subjects. Acta Biochim 59:43–47
Naguib YM (2000) Antioxidant activities of astaxanthin and related carotenoids. J Agric Food Chem 48:1150–1154
Hussein G, Sankawa U, Goto H et al (2006) Astaxanthin, a carotenoid with potential in human health and nutrition. J Nat Prod 69:443–449. https://doi.org/10.1021/np050354+
Alvarez V, Rodríguez-Sáiz M, de la Fuente JL et al (2006) The crtS gene of Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous encodes a novel cytochrome-P450 hydroxylase involved in the conversion of beta-carotene into astaxanthin and other xanthophylls. Fungal Genet Biol 43:261–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fgb.2005.12.004
Green AS, Fascetti AJ (2016) Meeting the vitamin A requirement: the efficacy and importance of β-carotene in animal species. Sci World J 2016:7393620. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/7393620
Capa-Robles W, Paniagua-Michel J, Soto JO (2009) The biosynthesis and accumulation of beta-carotene in Dunaliella salina proceed via the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate/pyruvate pathway. Nat Prod Res 23:1021–1028. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786410802689689
da Costa Cardoso LA, Kanno KYF, Karp SG (2017) Microbial production of carotenoids: a review. Afr J Biotechnol 16:139–146. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2016.15763
Verwaal R, Wang J, Meijnen J-P et al (2007) High-level production of beta-carotene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by successive transformation with carotenogenic genes from Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:4342–4350. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02759-06
Cardoso LAC, Karp SG, Vendruscolo F et al (2017) Biotechnological production of carotenoids and their applications in food and pharmaceutical products. In: Nikolic G (ed) Carotenoids. InTech, Rijeka, Croatia, pp 126–140
Strobel M, Tinz J, Biesalski H-K (2007) The importance of beta-carotene as a source of vitamin A with special regard to pregnant and breastfeeding women. Eur J Nutr 46(Suppl 1):I1–I20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-007-1001-z
Schagen SK, Zampeli VA, Makrantonaki E, Zouboulis CC (2012) Discovering the link between nutrition and skin aging. Dermatoendocrinology 4:298–307. https://doi.org/10.4161/derm.22876
Olson JH, Erie JC, Bakri SJ (2011) Nutritional supplementation and age-related macular degeneration. Semin Ophthalmol 26:131–136. https://doi.org/10.3109/08820538.2011.577131
Kritchevsky SB (1999) beta-Carotene, carotenoids and the prevention of coronary heart disease. J Nutr 129:5–8
Garewal HS, Katz RV, Meyskens F et al (1999) Beta-carotene produces sustained remissions in patients with oral leukoplakia: results of a multicenter prospective trial. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 125:1305–1310
Kelly Y, Sacker A, Marmot M (2003) Nutrition and respiratory health in adults: findings from the health survey for Scotland. Eur Respir J 21:664–671
Haxo F (1950) Carotenoids of the Mushroom Cantharellus cinnabarinus. Bot Gaz 112:228–232
Gharibzahedi SMT, Razavi SH, Mousavi SM (2013) Microbial canthaxanthin: perspectives on biochemistry and biotechnological production. Eng Life Sci 13:408–417. https://doi.org/10.1002/elsc.201200153
Esatbeyoglu T, Rimbach G (2017) Canthaxanthin: from molecule to function. Mol Nutr Food Res 61:1–49. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201600469
Brizio P, Benedetto A, Righetti M et al (2013) Astaxanthin and canthaxanthin (xanthophyll) as supplements in rainbow trout diet: in vivo assessment of residual levels and contributions to human health. J Agric Food Chem 61:10954–10959. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf4012664
Zaheer K (2017) Hen egg carotenoids (lutein and zeaxanthin) and nutritional impacts on human health: a review. CyTA—J Food 15:474–487. https://doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2016.1266033
Nwachukwu ID, Udenigwe CC, Aluko RE (2016) Lutein and zeaxanthin: production technology, bioavailability, mechanisms of action, visual function, and health claim status. Trends Food Sci Technol 49:74–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2015.12.005
Gong M, Bassi A (2016) Carotenoids from microalgae: a review of recent developments. Biotechnol Adv 34:1396–1412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2016.10.005
Gong M, Wang Y, Bassi A (2017) Process analysis and modeling of a single-step lutein extraction method for wet microalgae. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 101:8089–8099. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-017-8496-x
Šivel M, Kráčmar S, Fišera M et al (2014) Lutein content in marigold flower (Tagetes erecta L.) concentrates used for production of food supplements. Czech J Food Sci 32:521–525
Manayi A, Abdollahi M, Raman T et al (2016) Lutein and cataract: from bench to bedside. Crit Rev Biotechnol 36:829–839. https://doi.org/10.3109/07388551.2015.1049510
Milani A, Basirnejad M, Shahbazi S, Bolhassani A (2017) Carotenoids: biochemistry, pharmacology and treatment. Br J Pharmacol 174:1290–1324. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.13625
Story EN, Kopec RE, Schwartz SJ, Harris GK (2010) An update on the health effects of tomato lycopene. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 1:189–210. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.food.102308.124120
Khoo HE, Prasad KN, Kong KW et al (2011) Carotenoids and their isomers: color pigments in fruits and vegetables. Molecules 16:1710–1738. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules16021710
Ma T, Deng Z, Liu T (2016) Microbial production strategies and applications of lycopene and other terpenoids. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 32:15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-015-1975-2
Hernández-Almanza A, Montañez J, Martínez G et al (2016) Lycopene: progress in microbial production. Trends Food Sci Technol 56:142–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.08.013
Rao AV, Rao LG (2007) Carotenoids and human health. Pharmacol Res 55:207–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2007.01.012
Block G, Patterson B, Subar A (1992) Fruit, vegetables, and cancer prevention: a review of the epidemiological evidence. Nutr Cancer 18:1–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/01635589209514201
Schwarz S, Obermüller-Jevic UC, Hellmis E et al (2008) Lycopene inhibits disease progression in patients with benign prostate hyperplasia. J Nutr 138:49–53
Sesso HD, Buring JE, Norkus EP, Gaziano JM (2005) Plasma lycopene, other carotenoids, and retinol and the risk of cardiovascular disease in men. Am J Clin Nutr 81:990–997
Durairajanayagam D, Agarwal A, Ong C, Prashast P (2014) Lycopene and male infertility. Asian J Androl 16:420–425. https://doi.org/10.4103/1008-682X.126384
Zhang Y, Liu Z, Sun J et al (2017) Biotechnological production of zeaxanthin by microorganisms. Trends Food Sci Technol 71:225–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.11.006
Sajilata MG, Singhal RS, Kamat MY (2008) The carotenoid pigment zeaxanthin: a review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 7:29–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2007.00028.x
Cataldo VF, López J, Cárcamo M, Agosin E (2016) Chemical vs. biotechnological synthesis of C13-apocarotenoids: current methods, applications and perspectives. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 100:5703–5718. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-016-7583-8
Liau B-C, Hong S-E, Chang L-P et al (2011) Separation of sight-protecting zeaxanthin from Nannochloropsis oculata by using supercritical fluids extraction coupled with elution chromatography. Sep Purif Technol 78:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SEPPUR.2011.01.008
Li X-R, Tian G-Q, Shen H-J, Liu J-Z (2015) Metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli to produce zeaxanthin. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 42:627–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10295-014-1565-6
Mares J (2016) Lutein and zeaxanthin isomers in eye health and disease. Annu Rev Nutr 36:571–602. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071715-051110
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank for their collaboration to all the members of INBIOTEC and BIONICE. Special thanks to the European Union programs: i) ERA-IB 7th Joint Call [ProWood project (ERA-IB-16-040) through the APCIN call of the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness and the State Research Agency (AEI) (Project ID: PCIN-2016-081)] and ii) ERA CoBioTech Joint Call [Syntheroids project (ID: 48) through the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (MINECO), State Research Agency (AEI) and Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology (CDTI)].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Barreiro, C., Barredo, JL. (2018). Carotenoids Production: A Healthy and Profitable Industry. In: Barreiro, C., Barredo, JL. (eds) Microbial Carotenoids. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 1852. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-8742-9_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-8742-9_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-8741-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-8742-9
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols