Abstract
As a result of global population growth and technological improvements, a huge amount of agricultural waste is produced worldwide. Despite being the most numerous and renewable source of biomass on earth, these wastes are mostly unexplored because of the absence of commercial technology. The most of these wastes are either burned or piled up in municipal landfills, which is harmful to the ecosystem and detrimental to the human and animal. In order to handle the enormous substantial quantities of agricultural waste that are produced sustainably, prevent environmental damage, and reflect a closed-loop economy that turns waste into a useful significant value-added product, viable ways for the exploitation of agricultural wastes have been needed. Here, we reviewed the various sources of agro-wastes and their potential as raw materials, owing to their lignocellulosic nature, easy availability, and economical bioprocessing, for the production of industrially important chemicals and products like (1) biofuels, (2) organic acids, (3) enzymes, (4) aroma compounds, etc., and their role as adsorbents for removal of contaminants for environmental applications. We also reviewed the different physico-chemical and biological routes for the agricultural biomass valorization towards the production of significant value-added products production within the scope of a circular economy. Thus, this chapter summarized the sources, processing, and application of agro-wastes as a veritable resource for the production of industrially important products for commercialization and environmental applications with their simultaneous management via biotechnological applications.
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12.1 Introduction
Agricultural wastes are end-products or by-products of the production of agricultural commodities and the indecorous management of these wastes may contribute to various environmental hazards. Usually, the agro-wastes are discharged into the environment without any proper treatment or are burnt off, which leads to municipal landfilling and environmental load along with potential contamination and transmission of hazardous materials to the environment (Chia et al. 2018). Also, the incineration of such wastes produces greenhouse gases that are dangerous to the environment and human health (Bosio et al. 2013). Amounting to 350 million tonnes annually, India produces agricultural wastes whose appropriate handling is still in its primary stage (Saikia et al. 2020a, b). The majority of these leftovers are utilized as wood fuels, and also they might serve as the raw materials for a variety of commercial goods. The valorization of waste materials including agro-wastes is an appealing economic approach, due to the existence of cellulose backbone (Ren et al. 2009; Saikia et al. 2020c; Rathankumar et al. 2020a). Yet, the current research gap around essential scientific investigations makes large-scale management becomes difficult. The absence of appropriate treatment and downstream technologies and the viability of different integrated waste treatment procedures serve as typical examples of this gap. Moreover, the improper classification of the agro-wastes poses another obstacle in the development of recycling and valorization procedures, which have immensely affected the conversion of agro-industrial activity into a closed loop biorefinery model and the access to sustainable raw materials. Even though there have been several scientific studies on the viability and desirability of valorization technologies, the majority of these technology have been merely developed as theoretical models and have yet to be implemented in the industry. This chapter discusses an summary of the processing and agro-wastes application as a veritable resource to produce industrially important products like biofuels, enzymes, adsorbents and organic acids, for commercialization and environmental applications with their simultaneous management.
12.2 Types of Agro-Wastes
12.2.1 Crop Residues
The agricultural residues obtained after the harvesting of crops represent the most abundant, economic, and easily available source of organic waste that can be bio-transformed. This class of agro-wastes includes husk, bagasse, straw, peelings, cobs, and other lignocellulosic residues (Mtui 2009). These residues are biodegradable and can be subjected to various processes like anaerobic digestion and solid-state fermentation (Ren et al. 2009) to produce biofuels and several other industrially important biological macromolecules.
12.2.2 Animal Manure-Livestock Wastes
The production of animal manure is more than 1500 annually, out of which cattle manure corresponds up to 1284 million tons and pig manure corresponds to 295 million tons (Mtui 2009). The unused manure when not managed or treated poses a great threat to the air and water systems. Moreover, animal manure releases up to 18% CO2 equivalent and 37% methane, which directly contribute to the greenhouse effect (Ren et al. 2009). In the past few years, extensive work has been done in the anaerobic digestion of animal manure which can be subsequently used as fertilizer in agriculture. Moreover, this manure can also be co-digested with agro-waste for the production of methane and biohydrogen, etc.
12.2.3 Food Wastes
Food wastes constitutes up to 75–80% moisture and 85–90% of volatile solids which favors the growth of microorganisms with high energy content (Li et al. 2008). In general, these wastes are mostly landfilled which create foul odors and leachates which potentially pollute the groundwater table and nearby water bodies. Over the last few years, food wastes have been studied extensively as potential feedstock for the production of biofuels and other value-added commercial products (Li et al. 2008).
12.3 Agro-Waste Utilization Routes
12.3.1 Conventional Methods of Agro-Waste Management
12.3.1.1 Direct Combustion
Direct combustion of agro-waste as fuel is the oldest method of biomass conversion. The complete combustion of agro-waste involves the rapid oxidation of biomass with oxygen and the subsequent release of energy. However, this method is environmentally not friendly due to the release of CO2 during combustion, which adds to the greenhouse gases (Obi et al. 2016). Despite the adverse effect of combustion on the environment, it is the most widely used method for addressing agro-waste and accounts for up to 95% of the total biomass energy.
12.3.1.2 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process where agricultural waste is heated at 400–600 °C in the absence of an oxidizing agent to produce char and bio-oil. Pyrolysis of agro-wates has garnered great attention in Europe and America in recent time and many researchers have utilized various lignocellulosic wastes for bio-oil production by pyrolysis (Aravind et al. 2020). Bio-oil has a high calorific value, can be easily stored or transferred, and can be converted to other useful chemicals due to the low content of sulfur and nitrogen. The maximum yield of 70%, w/w, bio-oil from rice husk was obtained at 450 °C by Guedes et al. 2018. The valorization of agro-wastes by pyrolysis is shown Fig. 12.1.
Schematic flow for pyrolysis of agro-wastes to produce biochar and bio-oil. Pyrolysis becomes a thermal process which is performed in the absence of an oxidizing agent at high temperatures generally for the production of biofuels
12.3.1.3 Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is the solid phase decomposition of the organic residues by combined action of microorganisms and earthworms in an aerobic environment. Agro-waste, which is a by-product or end product of agricultural materials, can serve as potential substrates for earthworms (Pattnaik and Reddy 2010). Presently, these wastes are not utilized completely due to in situ land disposal or burning. Thus, these wastes could be selected for resource recovery through vermicomposting for agricultural land restoration (Tambe 2011). Table 12.1 shows various agricultural wastes that have been explored for vermicomposting.
The vermicompost obtained after the composting process has high humus content and exhibits nominal phytotoxicity. It consists of most of the nutrients required for plant growth, such as nitrates, phosphates, and calcium (Table 12.2). Thus, the vermicompost can be utilized as a fertilizer for the restoration of land applications (Pattnaik and Reddy 2010). The major benefits of vermicomposting are as follows:
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Increases soil fertility
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Improves the holding capacity of water in soil
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Mediates the restoration of soil microbial population
12.3.2 Valorization of Agro-Wastes
Agro-wastes generated from different activities which can be valorized in various ways to produce many value-added products as shown in Fig. 12.2.
Schematic pathway to convert the agro-wastes into industrial bioproducts and biofuels through biotechnological processes like aerobic and anaerobic fermentation
12.3.2.1 Production of Biofuels
Energy is the backbone of global economic growth and the rapid economic growth over the past decades has urged energy consumption considerably, which has anticipated unprecedented pressure to save energy (Srivastava et al. 2020). The change in lifestyles along with industrialization and globalization are the key drivers for the rise in energy demands and the 2010 World Energy Outlook predicted that the global energy demand will rise by 36% by 2035 (Birol 2008). In this context, a global energy transition from fossil fuels to low-carbon solutions is essential, which could be addressed by technological innovations in renewable energy. Bioenergy can substitute heat, electricity, or transport fuels and accounts for 11–14% of the world’s present total energy supply (Kumar et al. 2019). Renewable energy can constitute the largest low-cost substitute for energy security and reduce the dependency on limited energy sources.
Biofuels, compared to the other sources of renewable energy, constitute the most popular source as they can be transported and stored, and can be used for power generation on demand (Srivastava et al. 2017). The initial copious views on the production of biofuels were challenged due to the dawdled pace of development and the varied understanding of the impacts of this technology on sustainability. However, biofuel production reached 143 billion liters in 2017; the five major countries in the area of biofuel production include the United States, China, Germany, Argentina, and Brazil (Kumar et al. 2019).
Using agricultural wastes like rice bran, rice straw, and sugar cane bagasse are regarded as a common method of producing biofuel feedstock (Fig. 12.3). The biofuel potential of various agro-wastes is shown in Table 12.3. When compared to grain crops, the main benefit of employing agricultural wastes is that no extra land is needed for cultivation, minimizing land competition and reducing direct influence on commercial farming. Moreover, removing agricultural waste helps some crops indirectly and perhaps reducing insect attacks (Kumar et al. 2019; Yuan et al. 2018).
Potential biochemical and thermal treatment routes to convert the agro-wastes towards the production of biofuel. The biochemical route mostly involves the utilization of aerobic and anaerobic fermentation processes to produce bioethanol, biobutanol, etc. Pyrolysis and gasification are the commonly used thermochemical treatments for the production of syngas, bio-oil, etc.
Biotechnological processes to convert the and residues to produce biofuels are efficient in decreasing greenhouse gas and hazardous by-product emissions, which will help in solving the crisis of fuels.
12.3.2.2 Production of Organic Acids
Organic acids are soluble, hygroscopic, and chelating in nature that makes them suitable for various formulations at 37°C. These advantages of organic acids have established their importance in the food and beverage industries. Various scientists have widely evaluated the production of organic acids from agricultural residues through solid-state fermentation (Table 12.4). The use of agro-wastes provides a cheaper and easily available raw material which is produced in large quantities.
12.3.2.3 Production of Enzymes
During any fermentation process, substrate selection is an significant factors that determine the success of the process. The economic perspective of the process completely depends on the availability and cost of the substrate. In this context, the use of agro-wastes represents a possible low-cost materilas for the synthesis of microbial enzymes (Robinson and Nigam 2003). Lignocellulosic wastes contribute majorly to the agro-wastes available worldwide and represent the most abundant renewable biomass source (Kumar et al. 2019). The various agro-wastes utilized as substrates for the microbial production of enzymes are listed in Table 12.5.
12.3.2.4 Production of Protein-Enriched Feed
Agricultural residues have found signification applications for the production of energy; but their animal feed usage is greatly constrained due to the low content of protein, vitamins, and other nutritional components. However, after protein enrichment by using various microorganisms through solid-state fermentation, they could be utilized for animal nutrition (Robinson and Nigam 2003). A number of researches are available in the literature on the use of agro-waste as animal feed after protein enrichment which is listed in Table 12.6. The choice of microorganisms used for the fermentation process depends on the substrate used. Although these wastes are cheap sources of raw materials to produce protein-rich feed, the scale-up of these processes is constrained mostly due to logistic costs.
12.3.2.5 Production of Aroma Compounds
The growing interest in the utilization of natural products in the food industry has definitely stimulated in developing the biotechnological processes to produce various aroma compounds. These compounds also find their application in the manufacture of perfumes and cosmetics among many (Medeiros et al. 2001). On this front, the development of biotechnological processes to produce these metabolites by microbial bioconversion or fermentation constitutes an economical alternative to the higher cost extraction processes involved with raw materials like plants. In recent years, constant efforts have been undertaken in utilizing agricultural wastes like coffee husk, cassava bagasse, and sugarcane bagasse as substrates to produce of food aromas through solid-state fermentation. Even though numerous microorganisms are employed for the synthesis of potentially valuable aromas, the yields are very low which restricts their industrial application (Christen et al. 2000). The common agro-wastes utilized for the production of aroma compounds are listed in Table 12.7.
12.3.2.6 Production of Secondary Metabolites
The production of econdary metabolites are microbial secretions produced at the log phase and in the stationary phase. They constitute a class of industrially important microbial products and majorly include antibiotics, steroids, and alkaloids. In recent years, various agricultural wastes, like rice husk, rice bran, corncobs, wheat straw, etc., have been globally considered as cheaper and easily available raw materials for the production of secondary metabolites at a commercial level. In this context, the culturing of microorganisms on agro-wastes for the generation of secondary metabolites is an ideal approach. This is mainly done by solid-state fermentation with a lower moisture content which allows the microbial transformation of biological molecules. Apart from other microbes, the majority of fungal species are used in solid state fermentation to produce secondary metabolites is shown in Table 12.8.
12.3.2.7 Edible Oil Cakes
Oil cakes could be a the solid waste which are generated after the extraction of oil from the plants by solvent extraction or pressing. Because to their excellent nutritional properties, these cakes are typically utilized to meet the nutritional needs of both livestock feed and human consumption (Table 12.9). The major edible oil cakes that dominate the global oil cakes market are soybean, rapeseed, cottonseed, linseed, groundnut, sunflower, and copra cake. Out of them, soybean cake represents up to 54% of the total production, followed by 10% cottonseed and 10% rapeseed (Gangadharan and Sivaramakrishnan 2009).
12.3.2.8 Agro-Waste as Adsorbents for Contaminant Removal
Due to rapid industrialization and urbanization, there is an excessive discharge of organic and inorganic contaminants into the environment which affects human health (Akpomie and Conradie 2020, Rathankumar et al. 2020b). Due to various disadvantages of the already available treatment processes, like low metal removal, high energy requirements, generation of toxic by-products, etc., Many studies have been conducted recently with the agricultural wastes as biomass which acts as adsorbents to facilitate the removal of pollutants (Kulshreshtha 2019). Numerous works have been published on the heavy metals adsorption on agro-waste and a number of studies showed the immobilization of heavy metals on agro-waste (Najam and Andrabi 2016). Further, the adsorption of contaminants, mainly dyes and organic pollutants, in various studies have established agro-waste as an excellent environmentally friendly and economical adsorbent for the removal of contaminants from the ecosystem (Dupont et al. 2005; Sahmoune 2019). The various agro-wastes utilized for the contaminants removal are shown in Table 12.10.
12.4 Conclusion
The global discernment for agro-waste generation and management is rapidly shifting towards sustainable utilization due to the necessity for environmental conservation and world’s food security. Due to this elevated requirement for sustainability, different techniques were developed for the effective utilization and reprocessing of these wastes. Biotechnological approaches, such as solid-state fermentation, have laid down efficient platforms with low substrate cost and low energy requirements for the utilization of agro-wastes to produce various value-added commercial compounds. Further, the protein-enriched feed produced from agro-wastes offers renewable opportunities for animal nutrition. Thus, future research on biotechnological approaches and technologies will improve the deployment of improved products from waste thereby addressing the management of the surplus agro-wastes produced annually.
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Saikia, K., Rathankumar, A.K., Folch-Mallol, J.L., Kumar, V.V. (2023). A Waste-to-Wealth Prospective Through Biotechnological Advancements. In: Samuel Jacob, B., Ramani, K., Vinoth Kumar, V. (eds) Applied Biotechnology for Emerging Pollutants Remediation and Energy Conversion. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1179-0_12
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