Keywords

1 Introduction

With the gradual advancements in technology, there has been an increase in the way individuals use technologies such as Augmented Reality (i.e., AR)/Virtual Reality (i.e., VR)/Extended Reality (i.e., XR)/Mixed Reality (i.e., MR) and Metaverse (See Fig. 1) (Duan et al., 2021; Mystakidis, 2022). Moreover, studies also contend that Metaverse is one of the most debated topics as it provides immersive experiences for its users and allows them to interact within the virtual worlds. However, Metaverse and its wide range of implementations in various fields remain a contentious issue in existing literature (Rojas et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2022). In general, Metaverse is a shared virtual space where individuals can interact in real-time with other users via digital avatars (De Felice et al., 2023; Mystakidis, 2022). From a technological viewpoint, Metaverse is a 3D virtual space that combines both technologies, such as AR (i.e., augmented reality) and VR (i.e., virtual reality) (De Felice et al., 2023; Gao et al., 2023). Several platforms, including Second Life, Sandbox, and Decentraland, allow users access to the Metaverse systems, where they can create realistic avatars that can attend conferences and concerts and interact with other users (De Felice et al., 2023; Trunfio & Rossi, 2022). Moreover, Metaverse provides the opportunity for users to interact via immersive internet platforms where users are not only seen to have higher levels of engagement but also are seen to have practical learning experiences (Beck et al., 2023; Onu et al., 2023; Sin et al., 2023; Suh et al., 2023; Villalonga-Gómez et al., 2023). Currently, Metaverse continues to gain popularity, with reports indicating that the user base for Metaverse systems is expected to reach approximately 5 billion by around 2030 (Morris, 2022; Sharma et al., 2023).

Fig. 1.
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Source-(Duan et al., 2021)

Timeline for Gradual Advancements in Technology

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In particular, Metaverse has gained immense attention of academics and researchers on how it can be implemented within the domains of entertainment (Chakraborty et al., 2023; Evans et al., 2022a; Niu & Feng, 2022; Sahoo et al. 2023), healthcare systems (Kim et al., 2023; Musamih et al., 2022; Petrigna & Musumeci, 2022; Tan et al., 2022; G. Wang et al., 2022), education (Kye et al., 2021; Mystakidis, 2022; Sharma et al., 2023; Tlili et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2022), banking (Mozumder et al., 2023; Ooi et al., 2023; Sahoo & Ray, 2023; Zainurin et al., 2023), manufacturing (Z. Lin et al., 2022; Mourtzis et al., 2023a; Yao et al., 2022), advertising (Dwivedi et al., 2022; Eyada, 2023; Kim, 2021; Ozkaynar, 2023; Park & Kim, 2023), tourism (Buhalis et al., 2023; Koo et al., 2023; Tsai, 2022; Yang & Wang, 2023), retail (CHA, 2022; Gadalla et al., 2013; Hudson, 2022; Jenkins, 2022; Popescu et al., 2022), gaming (Evans et al., 2022b; Oliveira & Cruz, 2023; Onu et al., 2023) and real estate (Aharon et al., 2022; Kennedy, 2023; Yoo, 2022). The majority of these studies have either shed light on the varying opinions regarding the possibility of employing Metaverse in various sectors or on the determinants that will allow for Metaverse’s adoption in a wide range of technological settings (Alfaisal et al., 2022; Dwivedi et al., 2022; Gao et al., 2023; Wu & Hao, 2023).

Within higher education institutions, Metaverse-based learning systems are mostly centred towards the development of captivating virtual environments that allow students to have higher knowledge retention (Akour et al., 2022; Lee & Kim, 2022; Rojas et al., 2023). Moreover, these studies also highlight various frameworks that would enable the implementation of Metaverse-based teaching in higher education institutions. However, only a few studies have unearthed the linkages of theoretical underpinnings of user acceptance towards the Metaverse platforms. Hence, the purpose of this study remains to (a) investigate the existing literature and related theories (i.e., Technology Acceptance Model, Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) to understand the user acceptance towards Metaverse-based learning systems; (b) identify the key opportunities and challenges that are associated with the implementation of Metaverse-based teaching in higher education institutions.

To meet the objectives mentioned above of this study, a keyword search is conducted across three major databases, including Scopus, ProQuest, and Web of Science, to identify studies that elucidate theoretical notions as well as the key opportunities and challenges associated with the implementation of Metaverse-based teaching in higher education institutions. Additionally, to understand the trends within Metaverse-based teaching in higher education institutions, a co-occurrence analysis of keywords is conducted with the help of VOSviewer. The size of the labels within the figure denotes the number of occurrences of keywords within the extracted papers gathered from the Scopus database.

2 Background of the Study

Metaverse is an immersive platform that has the potential to reshape how education is delivered in HEIs by offering immersive experiences and enabling students to explore digital reality across various educational disciplines (Lin et al., 2022) (See Fig. 2). In detail, some of the positive impacts of Metaverse within higher education include (a) providing an immersive learning experience for students (Beck et al., 2023; Hwang et al., 2023; Sharma et al., 2023; Sin et al., 2023; Wei & Yuan, 2023); (b) Enhancing the visual experience for students (Di Natale et al., 2024; Han et al., 2022; Ng et al., 2023); (c) Creating hands-off experience for students which are of low-risk but of higher learning experience (Gómez-Cambronero et al., 2023; H. Lin et al., 2022; Sihna et al., 2023); (d) Personalised experiences (De Felice et al., 2023; Salloum et al., 2023; Sharma et al., 2023); (d) Fostering game based learning environments (Ng et al., 2023; Sihna et al., 2023); (e) collaborative experiences for development of new knowledge (Joshi & Pramod, 2023; Mourtzis et al., 2023b; Sharma et al., 2023).

Fig. 2.
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Source-(H. Lin et al., 2022)

Applications of Metaverse in Higher Education Institutions

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Metaverse is in its infancy, and its potential is yet to be discovered in this technological age. However, it is vital to understand the prospective developments that existed as the building blocks of the Metaverse systems. To begin with, Second Life has been a driving force behind the Metaverse revolution, which was released in 2003 as a platform for multiplayer online gaming in virtual worlds through avatars (Onu et al., 2023). Following that, technological applications such as Unity, Roblox, Unreal Engine, Nvidia Omniverse, Hololens 2, and Oculus Quest 2 have been recognised as practical tools for implementing Metaverse systems (See Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.
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Source- (Onu et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2022)

Applications Related to Metaverse Systems

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3 Theoretical Linkages in the Implementation of Metaverse-Based Teaching in Higher Education Institutions

3.1 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)

With the rapid advancements in technology, it is crucial to understand the user acceptance towards a particular technology. From a theoretical standpoint, the technology acceptance model (i.e., TAM) is one of the critical frameworks that uncover the acceptance level of human behaviour, explaining the potential approval or disapproval of technology. In detail, TAM predicts the acceptance level of a user by understanding the perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and attitude towards the use of technology. Moreover, TAM is also one of the prominent theories widely applied to various technologies ranging from mobile learning technologies to Metaverse technologies. The majority of studies conducted on the acceptance of a particular technology can be visualised to be taken by learners, educators, and stakeholders (Al-Adwan & Al-Debei, 2023; Al-Adwan et al., 2023; Alkhwaldi, 2023). As a result, it is essential to understand how Metaverse-based teaching in higher education institutions might be accepted by students and educators in the current technological age. Hence, Table 1 showcases the studies that are relevant to the technology acceptance model (TAM) and the adoption of Metaverse-based learning systems in higher education institutions as follows: -

Table 1. Studies Pertaining to TAM & Metaverse-Based Learning Systems
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3.2 Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)

In addition to TAM, UTAUT remains a key theory that provides a robust framework that explains the key factors behind a user’s behaviour and their acceptance level of a particular technology. According to the UTAUT, the four independent factors contributing to user’s behaviour and acceptance level are performance expectation, expected effort, social impact, and facilitating conditions (Lee & Kim, 2022). In light of these discussions, Venkatesh et al. (2012) also proposed the UTAUT2 model, which includes additional factors such as hedonic motivation, price value, and habit that would provide a deeper understanding towards the acceptance level of users towards a particular technology. Moreover, most studies have adopted the theoretical lenses of the UTAUT model to explain Metaverse-based teaching in higher education institutions. As a result, it is essential to understand how metaverse-based teaching in higher education institutions might be accepted by students and educators in the current technological age. Hence, studies relevant to the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and the adoption of Metaverse-based teaching in higher education institutions are showcased in Table 2.

Table 2. Studies Pertaining to UTAUT & Metaverse-Based Learning Systems
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4 Methodology

Based on the data extracted from the Scopus database, metaverse-based learning systems have gained enormous attention in countries such as South Korea, China, and India due to their current technological revolution (See Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.
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Source-(Scopus)

Studies on Metaverse Learning Systems Published by Different Countries

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Also, the database results showcase that Metaverse-based learning systems have been implemented effectively in various educational fields, including computer science, social sciences, and engineering-related fields in higher education institutions (See Fig. 5).

Fig. 5.
figure 5

Source-(Scopus)

Application of Metaverse Learning Systems in Various Fields of Higher Education Institutions

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Besides this, to address the critical purpose of this study, a rigorous approach is taken, where a keyword search is conducted on various designated databases such as Scopus, ProQuest, and the Web of Science platforms to showcase the key opportunities and challenges that are associated with the implementation of Metaverse-based learning systems in higher education institutions (See Table 3). VOSviewer is implemented to analyse the cluster analysis of Metaverse and its implementation in higher education institutions based on the search results gathered from the Scopus database.

Table 3. Keyword and Search Results from Designated Databases
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More precisely, the co-occurrence analysis is undertaken in VOSviewer, which explores that there exist three major clusters (i.e., Red, Green, and Blue) that provide ideas on the implementation of Metaverse-based teaching in higher education institutions (See Fig. 6). Firstly, the red cluster signifies the concepts such as Metaverse and its related technologies, such as AR and how it creates immersive learning experiences through the help of gamification. Secondly, the blue clusters showcase the notions and studies linked to virtual reality, e-learning and higher education. Finally, the green clusters depict the studies related to virtual worlds, avatars, and extended reality.

Fig. 6.
figure 6

Source-(VOSviewer)

Co-occurrence Analysis Through Vosviewer

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5 Key Opportunities and Challenges of Metaverse Technologies

With the growing popularity of Metaverse-based learning systems, it is critical to identify the opportunities and challenges associated with the implementation of Metaverse systems in higher education institutions (See Table 4 and Table 5). In detail, the key benefits of Metaverse systems in higher education institutions can be summarised as their ability to provide students with immersive and interactive experiences (Park & Kim, 2023; Richter & Richter, 2023; Said, 2023). Furthermore, some studies also state that metaverse-based learning systems not only provide personalised learning experiences for students but also provide students with an opportunity to learn skills through a game-based approach to learning (Akour et al., 2022; Al-Adwan et al., 2023). Furthermore, Metaverse-based learning systems are thought to provide collaborative learning experiences for students, fostering a constructivist approach to learning among them (Kryvenko & Chalyy, 2023; Onu et al., 2023). Lastly, it is also assumed that the implementation of Metaverse-based learning systems will boost the digital literacy level of both students and teachers, allowing them to have an enhanced experience while using Metaverse systems (Farias-Gaytan et al., 2023; Simbaqueba-Uribe et al., 2024).

Table 4. Key Opportunities of Metaverse Systems
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Table 5. Key Challenges of Metaverse Systems
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6 Conclusion and Future Research Directions

Following the COVID-19 pandemic, one of the most hotly debated topics is the Metaverse and its potential applications across various domains, including higher education. Furthermore, reflecting the arguments presented in the paper, it can be concluded that Metaverse not only provides an enhanced immersive experience for students but also comes with an array of challenges related to wide-scale implementations in higher education institutions. As a result, it is suggested that stakeholders, regulators, and government bodies need necessary actions to make substantial refinements in terms of privacy and governance of Metaverse systems.