Abstract
This chapter aims to provide information on how the analysis of a voice can assist in solving a crime. The field of phonetics is the science that deals with the production, the transfer and the perception of speech. Forensic phonetics is the subarea of phonetics that deals with the analysis of voice (and speech) for the purpose of criminal investigations. For example, in cases where the police have a suspect, a forensic phonetician may be asked to carry out a voice comparison. On the other hand, a voice profile in a kidnapping or blackmail case can reduce the number of possible suspects. Detailed transcriptions in the case of surveillance recordings derived from a taped telephone line or from surveillance equipment installed in a house or a car may be requested for investigative or evidentiary purposes. In addition, voice line-ups are constructed in cases, where the victim heard the attacker or kidnapper, but did not see the person. This chapter provides (1) an overview of the typical tasks that forensic phoneticians are asked to carry out, (2) a brief history of the field, (3) an overview of analysis methods and (4) a more detailed description of the auditory-acoustic approach with some examples that may assist junior-colleagues in the field. With this chapter, the author also hopes to make the area of speaker identification and forensic phonetics in general more accessible to the wider public.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
The novice reader of forensic phonetics may find the following introductory books useful: Jessen (2012), Künzel (1987), and Hollien (1990, 2002). A more advance research is represented by the works of Nolan (1983) and Rose (2002). Overview articles include: Braun (2012), Eriksson (2012), French (1994), French and Stevens (2013), Foulkes and French (2012), Gfroerer (2006), Hollien et al. (2014), Jessen (2008, 2010), Künzel (2003), Morrison (2010), Nolan (1991, 1997), and Watt (2010).
- 2.
Personal communication 25.03.2021.
- 3.
A detailed account of the case and its context can be found in de Jong-Lendle (2016).
- 4.
The chapters in the Bush et al. report ῾Cryptographic tools and methodsʼ (pp. 48–61) and ῾The sound spectrographʼ (pp. 61–99) give an account of these decoding efforts.
- 5.
- 6.
The IAFPA Voiceprint Resolution is also made available on their site: https://www.iafpa.net/the-association/resolutions/.
- 7.
For an example of a US firm offering aural/spectrographic voice identification, please go to https://www.owenforensicservices.com/voice-identification-the-aural-spectrographic-method/.
- 8.
In contrast with the highly variable voice, a person’s DNA and fingerprints do not change over time and are highly specific. The author is aware of the fact that the analysis and interpretation of these patterns can still lead to erroneous results in the case of unclear fingerprints—for example, in 2004, the FBI identified an innocent person as the bomber in the Madrid train bombing case (Stacey, 2004). See Dror (2015) for examiner’s bias; Lander (1989) and Thompson (1995) for faint DNA-bands that allow different interpretations as occurred in the Castro case. An excellent study explaining the significance of this case with regard to the Frye ruling is Mnookin (2007). For a detailed explanation on intra-speaker variability, see Nolan (1997, pp. 749–753).
- 9.
- 10.
In the case, an intruder with an unusual talent for languages managed a convincing disguise in an emergency call, imitating a foreign accent in German. He later confessed to the call. The effectiveness of the automatic approach in this case is currently being explored.
- 11.
- 12.
RBH is the abbreviation of the German words ῾Rauigkeit’, ῾Behauchtheit’ and ‘Heiserkeit’ (translated as rough, breathy and hoarse), nasality not being part of the RBH classification.
- 13.
For a detailed review on the potential of the Laver framework for forensic phonetics , the limitations of voice quality judgements and the forensic value of formant measurements, see Nolan (2005).
- 14.
Despite the fact that the fricative pronunciation of the /g/ is the non-prestige variant, it obviously does not prevent anyone from having a career: another person being known for his /g/ was former president Gorbatschow.
- 15.
- 16.
- 17.
For a review on age estimation (from faces) and voices, see Moyse (2014).
- 18.
References
Abercrombie, D. (1967). Elements of general phonetics. Edinburgh University Press.
Aitken, C. C. G. (1995). Statistics and the evaluation of evidence for forensic scientists. John Wiley & Sons.
Amilon, K., Van de Weijer, J., & Schötz, S. (2007). The impact of visual and auditory cues in age estimation. In C. Müller (Ed.), Speaker classification II. Lectures notes in artificial intelligence (pp. 10–21). Springer.
Anonymous. (1998). The voiceprint dilemma: Should voices be seen and not heard? Maryland Law Review, 35(2), 267–296.
Baldwin, J., & French, F. (1990). Forensic phonetics. Pinter.
Ball, M. J., Esling, J., & Dickson, C. (1995). The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25(2), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100300005181
Berg, A. S. (1998). Charles Lindbergh—Ein Idol des 20. Jahrhunderts. Karl Blessing Verlag.
Boersma, P., & Weenink, D. (2018). Praat. Doing phonetics by computer. http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/
Bolt, R. H., Cooper, F. S., David, E. E., Jr., Denes, P. B., Pickett, J. M., & Stevens, K. N. (1970). Speaker identification by speech spectrograms: A scientists’ view of its reliability for legal purposes. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 47, 597–612.
Bolt, R. H., Cooper, F. S., David, E. E., Jr., Denes, P. B., Pickett, J. M., & Stevens, K. N. (1973). Speaker identification by speech spectrograms: Some further observations. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 54, 531–534.
Boss, D., Gfroerer, S., & Neoustroev, N. (2003). A new tool for the visualization of magnetic features on audiotapes. The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law—Forensic Linguistics, 10(2), 255–276. https://doi.org/10.1558/sll.2003.10.2.255
Braun, A. (1995). Fundamental frequency – How speaker-specific is it? In A. Braun & J.-P. Köster (Eds.), Studies in forensic phonetics (pp. 9–23). WVT.
Braun, A. (1996). Age estimation by different listener groups. Forensic Linguistics, 3, 65–73.
Braun, A. (2012). Forensische Sprach- und Signalverarbeitung. In J. Bockemühl (Ed.), Handbuch des Fachanwalts Strafrecht (pp. 1644–1666). Carl Heymanns Verlag.
Braun, A., & Cerrato, L. (1999). Estimating speaker age across languages. In Proceedings of the International Conference of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 1369–1372). San Francisco, USA.
Braun, A., & Rietveld, T. (1995). The influence of smoking habits on perceived age. In K. Elenius & P. Branderud (Eds.), Proceedings of the 13th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 294–297). Stockholm.
Bricker, P. D., & Pruzansky, S. (1966). Effects of stimulus content and duration on talker identification. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 40, 1441–1449.
Broeders, A. P. A. (1992). Verstaanbaarheidsverbetering – Het forensisch onderzoek van audio-opnamen (IV). Modus, 2, 42–43.
Broeders, A. P. A. (1993). De stem als bewijsmateriaal: Forensisch spraakonderzoek 1. Onze Taal, 62(10), 230–231.
Broeders, A. P. A., & Rietveld, A. (1995). Speaker identification by earwitnesses. Studies in Forensic Phonetics, 24–40.
Bryan, R. (1991). The execution of the innocent. NYU Review of Law and Social Change, 18, 33.
Bryson, B. (2013). One summer: America 1927. Transworld Publishers.
Bush, V., Conant, J. B., Pratt, H., & National Defense Research Committee & Columbia University, Division of War Research. (1946). Speech and facsimile scrambling and decoding—Summary Technical Report of Divisions 13. Office of Scientific Research and Development, National Defense Research Committee. https://archive.org/details/speechfacsimiles03unit?view=theater
Cerrato, L., Falcone, M., & Paoloni, A. (2000). Subjective age estimation of telephonic voices. Speech Communication, 31(2–3), 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-6393(99)00071-0
Champod, C., & Meuwly, D. (2000). The inference of identity in forensic speaker recognition. Speech Communication, 31, 193–203.
Clark, H., & Fox Tree, J. E. (2002). Tree using uh and um in spontaneous speaking. Cognition, 84, 73–111.
Clifford, B. R. (1980). Voice identification by human listeners: On earwitness reliability. Law and Human Behavior, 4, 373–394.
Corley, M., & Stewart, O. W. (2008). Hesitation disfluencies in spontaneous speech: The meaning of um. Language and Linguistics Compass, 2, 589–602.
Crystal, D. (2010). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge University Press.
Dantz, R., & Oehl, F. (2014). Jahrhundert-Verbrechen—Bruno Richard Hauptmann und die Entführung des Lindbergh-Babys. Saxophon Verlag.
de Jong, G. (1998). Earwitness characteristics and speaker identification accuracy. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Florida, USA.
de Jong, G., House, J., Cook, N., & Young, A. (2005). The speaker discriminating power of the final fall: Spontaneous speech. Presented at IAFPA, Marrakech.
de Jong-Lendle, G. (2016). Der Strafprozess des Jahrhunderts—Die Geschichte eines Piloten, eines deutschen Immigranten, einer skeptischen Wissenschaftlerin und des Beginns der forensischen Phonetik. Literaturkritik.de, 2016(8).
de Jong-Lendle, G., Nolan, F., McDougall, K., & Hudson, T. (2015). Voice lineups: A practical guide. Proceedings of the 17th ICPhS, August, Glasgow, UK.
Dellwo, V. (2006). Rhythm and speech rate: A variation coefficient for deltaC. In P. Karnowski & I. Szigeti (Eds.), Language and language-processing (pp. 231–241). Peter Lang.
Dellwo, V., Leemann, A., & Kolly, M. J. (2015). Rhythmic variability between speakers: Articulatory, prosodic, and linguistic factors. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 137(1513). https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4906837
Dirim, I., & Auer, P. (2004). Türkisch sprechen nicht nur die Türken. De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110919790
Dror, I. E. (2015). Cognitive neuroscience in forensic science: Understanding and utilizing the human element. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 370(1674), 2014025. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0255
Drygajlo, A., Jessen, M., Gfroere, S., Wagner, I., Vermeulen, J., & Niemi, T. (2015). Methodological guidelines for best practice in forensic semiautomatic and automatic speaker recognition. European Network of Forensic Science Institutes.
Eckert, H., & Laver, J. (1994). Menschen und Ihre Stimmen. Weinheim.
Ellis, S. (1994). The Yorkshire Ripper enquiry: Part I. Forensic Linguistics: The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, 1(2), 197–206.
Eriksson, A. (2012). Aural/acoustic vs. automatic methods in forensic phonetic case work. In A. Neustein & H. Patil (Eds.), Forensic speaker recognition. Law enforcement and counter-terrorism (pp. 41–69). Springer.
European Network of Forensic Science Institutes. (2015). ENFSI guideline for evaluative reporting in forensic science. Retrieved from https://enfsi.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/m1_guideline.pdf
Evett, I. W. (1998). Towards a uniform framework for reporting opinions in forensic science casework. Science & Justice, 38(3), 198–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1355-0306(98)72105-7
Foulkes, P., & French, P. (2012). Forensic speaker comparison: A linguistic-acoustic perspective. In L. M. Solan & P. M. Tiersma (Eds.), Oxford handbook of language and law (pp. 557–572). Oxford University Press.
Fraser, H. (2003). Issues in transcription: Factors affecting the reliability of transcripts as evidence in legal cases. Forensic Linguistics, 10(2), 203–226.
Fraser, H. (2014). Transcription of indistinct forensic recordings. Language and Law, 1(2), 5–21.
French, P. (1994). An overview of forensic phonetics with particular reference to speaker identification. Forensic Linguistics, 1, 169–181.
French, P. (2017). A developmental history of forensic speaker comparison in the UK. English Phonetics, 271–286.
French, P., Harrison, P., & Lewis, J. W. (2006). R v John Samuel Humble: The Yorkshire Ripper Hoaxer trial. International Journal of Speech Language and the Law, 13(2), 967.https://doi.org/10.1558/ijsll.2006.13.2.255
French, P., & Stevens, L. (2013). Forensic speech Science. In R. A. Knight & M. Jones (Eds.), The Bloomsbury companion to phonetics (pp. 183–197). Continuum. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472541895.ch-012
Frye v. United States. (1923). 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923), Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia.
Gerlach, L., McDougall, K., Kelly, F., Alexander, A., & Nolan, F. (2020). Exploring the relationship between voice similarity estimates by listeners and by an automatic speaker recognition system incorporating phonetic features. Speech Communication, 124, 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2020.08.003
Gfroerer, S. (2006). Sprechererkennung und Tonträgerauswertung. In G. Widmaier (Ed.), Müncher Anwaltshandbuch Strafverteidigung (pp. 2005–2526). C.H. Beck.
Gold, E., & French, P. (2011). International practices in forensic speaker comparison. International Journal of Speech Language and the Law, 18. https://doi.org/10.1558/ijsll.v18i2.293
Goldman-Eisler, F. (1968). Psycholinguistics: Experiments in spontaneous speech. Academic.
Grey, G., & Kopp, G. A. (1944). Voiceprint identification. Bell Telephone Laboratories Report, 1–14.
Grosjean, F., & Collins, M. (1979). Breathing, pausing and reading. Phonetica, 36(2), 98–114.
Guillemin, B., & Watson, C. (2009). Impact of the GSM mobile phone network on the speech signal – Some preliminary findings. International Journal of Speech Language and The Law, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.1558/ijsll.v15i2.193
Harnsberger, J. D., Brown, W. S., Shrivastav, R., & Rothman, H. (2010). Noise and tremor in the perception of vocal aging in males. Journal of Voice, 24(5), 523–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2009.01.003
Harnsberger, J. D., Shrivastav, R., Brown, W. S., Rothman, H., & Hollien, H. (2008). Speaking rate and fundamental frequency as speech cues to perceived age. Journal of Voice, 22(1), 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2006.07.004
Hauptmann, B. R. (1935). Die Lebenserinnerungen von Bruno Richard Hauptmann. In R. Dantz & F. Oehl (Eds.), Jahrhundertverbrechen-Bruno Richard Hauptmann und die Entführung des Lindbergh-Babys (pp. 53–203). Saxophon Verlag.
Hazen, K. (2006). Idiolect. In K. Brown (Ed.), Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (Vol. 5, 2nd ed.). Elsevier.
Hollien, H. (1990). The acoustics of crime. Springe.
Hollien, H. (2002). Forensic voice identification. Academic.
Hollien, H., Huntley-Bahr, R., & Harnsberger, J. D. (2014). Issues in forensic voice. Journal of Voice, 28(2), 170–184.
Hollien, H., & McGlone, R. E. (1976). The effect of disguise on ῾voiceprintʼ identification. Journal of Criminal Defense, 2, 117–130.
Hudson, T., de Jong, G., McDougall, K., Harrison, P., & Nolan, F. (2007). F0 statistics for 100 young male speakers of Standard Southern British English. In J. Trouvain (Ed.), Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 1809–1812). Saarbrücken, Germany.
Hughes, S. M., & Rhodes, B. C. (2010). Making age assessments based on voice: The impact of the reproductive viability of the speaker. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 4(4), 290–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099282
Hughes, V., & Foulkes, P. (2014). The relevant population in forensic voice comparison: Effects of varying delimitations of social class and age. Speech Communication, 66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2014.10.006
Huntley, R., Hollien, H., & Shipp, T. (1987). Influences of listener characteristics on perceived age estimations. Journal of Voice, 1(1), 49–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0892-1997(87)80024-3
Huys, T., & Krabbé, T. (Producers). (2019, November 18). De schrijver, de moordenaar en zijn vrouw, [Television broadcast]. : BNNVARA.
Jessen, M. (2007). Forensic reference data on articulation rate in German. Science & Justice: Journal of the Forensic Science Society, 47(2), 50–67.
Jessen, M. (2008). Forensic phonetics. Language and Linguistics Compass, 2, 671–711.
Jessen, M. (2010). The forensic phonetician: Forensic speaker identification by experts. In M. Coulthard & A. Johnson (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of forensic linguistics (pp. 378–394). Routledge.
Jessen, M. (2011). Conclusions on voice comparison evidence in Germany and a challenging case.
Jessen, M. (2012). Phonetische und linguistische Prinzipien des forensischen Stimmenvergleichs. LINCOM.
Jessen, M., Koster, O., & Gfroerer, S. (2005). Influence of vocal effort on average and variability of fundamental frequency. The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, 12(2), 174–213. https://doi.org/10.1558/sll.2005.12.2.174
Johnson, C., & Hollien, H. (1984). Speaker identification utilizing selected temporal speech features. Journal of Phonetics, 12, 319–326.
Kehrein, R. (2021, Juli 1). Wo kommt die/der denn her? Dialektkarten für das Speakerprofiling. Sprachspuren – Berichte aus dem Deutschen Sprach Atlas. Retrieved from https://www.sprachspuren.de/author/roland-kehrein/
Kersta, L. G. (1962). Voiceprint identification. Nature, 196, 1253–1257.
Kluge, K., Müller M., Dubielzig, C., Meinerz C., & Masthoff, H. (2018). Distribution of voice quality features in German. Preliminary results. Poster presentation of the Conference of the International Association for Forensic Phonetics and Acoustics. Huddersfield, UK.
Kohler, K. J. (1977). Einführung in der Phonetik des Deutschen. Erich Schmidt Verlag.
Köster, O., Jessen, M., Khairi, F., & Eckert, H. (2007). Auditory-perceuptual identification of voice quality by expert and non-expert listeners.
Köster, O., & Köster, J.-P. (2004). The auditory-perceptual evaluation of voice quality in forensic speaker recognition. The Phonetician, 89, 9–37.
Kraayeveld, H. (1997). Idiosyncrasy in prosody. Speaker and speaker group identification in Dutch using melodic and temporal information. Doctoral thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/43592901.pdf
Kreiman, J., & Gerrat, B. (2011). Comparing two methods for reducing variability in voice quality measurements. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 54, 803–812.
Künzel, H. J. (1987). Sprechererkennung: Grundzüge forensischer Sprachverarbeitung. Heidelberg: Kriminalistik Verlag.
Künzel, H. J. (1990). Phonetische Untersuchungen zur Sprechererkennung durch linguistisch naive Personen, Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 69. Steiner Verlag.
Künzel, H. J. (1997). Some general phonetic and forensic aspects of speaking tempo. Forensic Linguistics, 4, 48–83.
Künzel, H. J. (2003). Die forensische Sprachverarbeitung. Ein Überblick über den gegenwärtigen Stand. Kriminalistik, 57, 676–684.
Lander, E. S. (1989). DNA fingerprinting on trial. Nature, 339(6225), 501–505. https://doi.org/10.1038/339501a0
Laver, J. (1980). The phonetic description of voice quality. Cambridge University Press.
Laver, J. (1994). Principles of phonetics. Cambridge University Press.
Lindbergh, C. A. (1953). The spirit of St. Louis. Scribner.
Lindh, J. (2006). Preliminary descriptive F0-statistics for young male speakers. Lund University Working Papers, 52, 89–92.
Martin, S., de Jong-Lendle, G., Duckworth, M., & Kehrein, R. (2021). The variability of stuttering: A forensic phonetic study. Poster presented at the IAFPA conference in Marburg, August.
McDougall, K. (2004). Speaker-specific formant dynamics: An experiment on Australian English /aI/. The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, 11(1), 103–130. https://doi.org/10.1558/sll.2004.11.1.103
McDougall, K. (2006). Dynamic features of speech and the characterisation of speakers: Towards a new approach using formant frequencies. The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, 13, 89–126.
McDougall, K., & Duckworth, M. (2017). Profiling fluency: An analysis of individual variation in disfluencies in adult males. Speech Communication, 95, 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2017.10.001
McGehee, F. (1937). The reliability of the identification of the human voice. Journal of General Psychology, 17, 249–271.
McGehee, F. (1944). An experimental study of voice recognition. Journal of General Psychology, 31, 53–65.
Mnookin, J. L. (2007). People V. Castro: Challenging the forensic use of DNA evidence. Journal of Scholarly Perspectives, 3(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/362776cz
Morrison, G., Sahito, F., Jardine, G., Djokic, D., Clavet, S., Berghs, S., & Dorny, C. (2016). INTERPOL survey of the use of speaker identification by law enforcement agencies. Forensic Science International, 263, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.03.044
Morrison, G. S. (2010). Forensic voice comparison. In I. Freckelton, & H. Selby (Eds.), Expert evidence (pp. 1–106). Thomson Reuters.
Morrison, G. S., Ochoa, F., & Tharmarajah, T. (2012). Database selection for forensic voice comparison. Proceedings of Odyssey 2012: The Language and Speaker Recognition Workshop.
Moyse, E. (2014). Age estimation from faces and voices: A review. Psychologica Belgica, 54(3), 255–265. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.aq
Nagao, K. (2006). Cross-language study of age perception. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Indiana University, USA.
Nawka, T., & Anders, L. C. (1996). Die auditive Bewertung heiserer Stimmen nach dem RBH-System.
Nederlands Forensisch Instituut. (2016). Vakbijlage – vergelijkend spraakonderzoek. Retrieved from https://www.forensischinstituut.nl/publicaties/publicaties/2020/02/03/vakbijlage-vergelijkend-spraakonderzoek
Nederlands Forensisch Instituut. (2017). De reeks waarschijnlijkheidstermen van het NFI en het Bayesiaanse model voor interpretatie van bewijs. Vakbijlage (Versie 2.2 mei 2017).
Neiman, G. S., & Applegate, J. A. (1990). Accuracy of listener judgments of perceived age relative to chronological age in adults. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 42(6), 327–330. https://doi.org/10.1159/000266090
Nolan, F. (1983). The phonetic bases of speaker recognition. Cambridge University Press.
Nolan, F. (1991). Forensic phonetics. Journal of Linguistics, 27, 483–493.
Nolan, F. (1997). Speaker recognition and forensic phonetics. In W. Hardcastle, & J. Laver (Eds.), The handbook of phonetic sciences (pp. 744–767). Blackwell.
Nolan, F. (2001). Speaker identification evidence: Its forms, limitation, and roles. In Proceedings of the Conference on Law and Language: Prospects and Retrospect (pp. 1–19). Levi, Finnland.
Nolan, F. (2003). A recent voice parade. The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law—Forensic Linguistics, 10(2), 277–291. https://doi.org/10.1558/sll.2003.10.2.277
Nolan, F. (2005). Forensic speaker identification and the phonetic description of voice quality. In W. J. Hardcastle, & J. Mackenzie Beck (Eds.), A figure of speech (pp. 385–413). Routledge.
Nolan, F., McDougall, K., De Jong, G., & Hudson, T. (2009). The DyViS database: Style-controlled recordings of 100 homogeneous speakers for forensic phonetic research. International Journal of Speech Language and the Law, 16(1), 31–57. https://doi.org/10.1558/ijsll.v16i1.31
Orton, H., & Halliday, W. J. (Eds.). (1962). Survey of English dialects basic material: Vol. 1, The six northern counties and the Isle of Man. E. J. Arnold.
Orton, H., Sanderson, S., & Widdowson, J. (Eds.). (1978). The linguistic atlas of England. Croom Helm.
Pfitzinger, H. R. (2001). Phonetische Analyse der Sprechgeschwindigkeit. Forschungsberichte des Instituts für Phonetik und sprachliche Kommunikation, 38, 117–264.
Pike, K. L. (1945). The intonation of American English. University of Michigan Press.
Potter, R. (1945). Visible patterns of sound. Science, 102(2654), 463–470. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673144
Potter, R., Kopp, K., & Green, H. (1947). Visible speech (Bell telephone laboratories series). D. Van Nostrand Company.
Poza, F., & Begault, D., & (2005). Voice identification and elimination using aural-spectrographic protocols. Proceedings of the Audio Engineering Society Conference, Denver, USA.
Ptok, M., Natke, U., & Oertle, H. M. (2006). The management of stammering. Deutsches Arzteblatt, 103, 1216–1221.
R. v. Anthony O’Doherty. (2002). Court of appeal in Northern Ireland. Ref: NICB3173.
Ramus, F., Nespor, M., & Mehler, J. (1999). Correlates of linguistic rhythm in the speech signal. Cognition, 73, 265–292.
Reich, A. R., Moll, K. L., & Curtis, J. F. (1976). Effects of selected vocal disguises upon spectrographic speaker identification. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 60, 919–925.
Rietveld, A. C. M., & Broeders, A. P. A. (1991). Testing the fairness of voice parades: The similarity criterion. In Proceedings of the International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 46–49). Aix-en-Provence, France.
Riley, G. (2009). The stuttering severity instrument for adults and children (SSI-4) (4th ed.). PRO-ED.
Rinke, P., Beier, K., Kaul, R., Schmidt, T., Scharinger, M., & DeJong-Lendle, G. (2021). Neurophysiological evidences for automatic speaker recognition: Neural correlates of voice familiarity. In Talk Presented at the International Association for Forensic Phonetics and Acoustics Annual Conference, Marburg, Germany.
Robertson, B., & Vignaux, G. A. (1995). Interpreting evidence. Wiley.
Rodrigues, P., & Nagao, K. (2010). Effects of listener experience with foreign accent on perception of accentedness and speaker age. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 127(3), 1956. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3384968
Rose, P. (2002). Forensic speaker identification. Taylor & Francis.
Rothman, H. B. (1977). Perceptual (aural) and spectrographic identification of talkers with similar-sounding voices. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Crime Countermeasures (pp. 37–42). Oxford, UK.
Samuel, A. G. (1981). The role of bottom-up confirmation in the phonemic restoration illusion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 7(5), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.7.5.1124
San Segundo, E., Foulkes, P., French, P., Harrison, P., Hughes, V., & Kavanagh, C. (2019). The use of the vocal profile analysis for speaker characterization: Methodological proposals. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 49(3), 353–380. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100318000130
Schmidt, J. E., Herrgen, J., Kehrein, R., & Lameli, A. (Eds.) (2008). Regionalsprache.de (REDE). Forschungsplattform zu den modernen Regionalsprachen des Deutschen. Retrieved from https://regionalsprache.de
Schubert, A., & Sendlmeier, W. (2005). Was kennzeichnet einen guten Nachrichtensprecher im Hörfunk? Eine perzeptive und akustische Analyse von Stimme und Sprechweise. In W. Sendlmeier (Ed.), Sprechwirkung – Sprechstile in Funk und ernsehen (pp. 13–69). Logos.
Schwartz, R. (2006). Voiceprints in the United States – Why they won’t go away. In J. Lindh, & A. Erikson (Eds.) Proceedings of the International Association of Forensic Phonetics and Acoustics Conference, Sweden.
Seelmann-Eggebert, K. (Producer). (2012, 7th March). Kamenz und das Lindbergh Baby [Television broadcast]. Hamburg, Germany: Spiegel TV.
Shipp, T., & Hollien, H. (1969). Perception of the aging male voice. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 12, 703–710.
Shipp, T., Qi, Y., Huntley, R., & Hollien, H. (1992). Acoustic and temporal correlates of perceived age. Journal of Voice, 6, 211–216.
Skoog Waller, S. (2021). Accuracy and confidence in estimation of speaker age. International Journal of Speech Language and The Law, 27, 2. https://doi.org/10.1558/ijsll.39700
Solan, L. M., & Tiersma, P. M. (2003). Hearing voices: Speaker identification in court. Hastings Law Journal, 54, 373–435.
Solan, L. M., & Tiersma, P. M. (2005). Speaking of crime: The language of criminal justice. University of Chicago Press.
Sporer, S. L. (1982). A brief history of the psychology of testimony. Current Psychological Reviews, 2, 323–340.
Stacey, R. B. (2004). Report on the erroneous fingerprint individualization in the Madrid train bombing case. The Journal of Forensic Identification, 54(6), 706–718.
State v. Hauptmann, Atlantic Rep. (1935). 180, 809-829.
Stotland, D. M., & Brown, G. O. (1978). Voiceprints. Dalhousie Law Journal, 4(3), 708–738.
Thompson, C. (1985). Voice identification: Speaker identifiability and a correction of the record regarding sex effects. Human Learning, 4, 19–27.
Thompson, W. C. (1995). Subjective interpretation, laboratory error and the value of forensic DNA evidence: Three case studies. In B. S. Weir (Ed.), Human identification: The use of DNA markers (Contemporary issues in genetics and evolution (CIGE)) (Vol. 4, pp. 153–168). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-46851-3_17
Thompson, W. C., & Schumann, E. L. (1987). Interpretation of statistical evidence in criminal trials. Law and Human Behavior, 11, 167–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01044641
Tosi, O., Oyer, H., & Nash, E. (1972). Latest developments in voice identification. Abstract. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 51, 132.
Trouvain, J. (2014). Laughing, breathing clicking—The prosody of nonverbal vocalisations. In N. Campbell, D. Gibbon, & D. J. Hirst (Eds.), Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Speech Prosody (SP7) (pp. 598–602). Trinity College.
Trouvain, J., Fauth, C., & Möbius, B. (2016). Breath and non-breath pauses in fluent and disfluent phases of German and French L1 and L2 Read Speech. Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Speech Prosody. Boston.
Van Riper, C. (1973). The treatment of stuttering. Prentice Hall.
Voelkle, M. C., Ebner, N. C., Lindenberger, U., & Riediger, M. (2012). Let me guess how old you are: Effects of age, gender, and facial expression on perceptions of age. Psychology and Aging, 27(2), 265–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025065
Warren, R. M. (1970). Perceptual restoration of missing speech sounds. Science, 392–393.
Watt, D. (2010). The identification of the individual through speech. In C. Llamas, & D. Watt (Eds.), Language and identities (pp. 76–85). Edinburgh University Press.
Wells, G. L., & Loftus, E. F. (1984). Eyewitness research: Then and now. In G. L. Wells & E. F. Loftus (Eds.), Eyewitness testimony: Psychological perspectives (pp. 1–11). New York.
Wiese, H. (2012). Kiezdeutsch. Ein neuer Dialekt entsteht. C. H. Beck.
Xue, A., & Hao, J. G. (2006). Normative standards for vocal tract dimensions by race as measured by acoustic pharyngometry. Journal of Voice, 20, 391–400.
Yairi, E., & Ambrose, N. (1999). Early childhood stuttering I: Persistency and recovery rates. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1097–1012.
Yairi, E., & Ambrose, N. (2013). Epidemiology of stuttering: 21st century advances. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 38, 66–87.
Yarmey, A. D. (1995). Earwitness speaker identification. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 1, 792–816.
Yarmey, A. D. (2007). The psychology of speaker identification and earwitness memory. In R. C. L. Lindsay, D. F. Ross, J. D. Read, & M. Toglia (Eds.), Handbook of eyewitness psychology: Memory for people, 2 (pp. 101–136). Erlbaum.
Yarmey, A. D., Yarmey, M. J., & Todd, L. (2008). Frances McGehee (1912–2004): The first earwitness researcher. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 106(2), 387–394. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.106.2.387-394
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to the editors for comments on an earlier draft of this article. Any errors remain my own.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
de Jong-Lendle, G. (2022). Speaker Identification. In: Guillén-Nieto, V., Stein, D. (eds) Language as Evidence. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84330-4_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84330-4_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-84329-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-84330-4
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)