Abstract
Having to work working outside the normal ‘9-5’ (e.g. due to shift work, long weekly work hours or flexible working) can affect men and women differently. For example, women’s health is often reported to be more negatively affected by shift working than men, although the evidence of such a gender divide is mixed. Similarly, while some studies suggest that women benefit more from high work-time control, others report women experiencing negative effects of greater work-time control. In reviewing the evidence, we will examine whether women and men have different experiences of working different types of non-standard work hours, and consider what factors might account for those gender differences.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ala-Mursula, L., Vahtera, J., Pentti, J., & Kivimäki, M. (2004). Effect of employee worktime control on health: A prospective cohort study. Occupational and Environmental Medicine., 61(3), 254–261.
Albrecht, S. C., Kecklund, G., & Leineweber, C. (2020). The mediating effect of work-life interference on the relationship between work-time control and depressive symptoms, musculoskeletal pains and physical activity. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 46(5), 469–479.
Albrecht, S. C., Kecklund, G., Tucker, P., & Leineweber, C. (2016). Investigating the factorial structure and availability of work time control in a representative sample of the Swedish working population. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 44(3), 320–328.
Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E. L., Bruck, C. S., & Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology., 5(2), 278–308.
Angerer, P., Schmook, R., Elfantel, I., & Li, J. (2017). Night work and the risk of depression. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International, 114(24), 404–411.
Arlinghaus, A., Bohle, P., Iskra-Golec, I., Jansen, N., Jay, S., & Rotenberg, L. (2019). Working time society consensus statements: Evidence-based effects of shift work and non-standard working hours on workers, family and community. Industrial Health, 57(2), 184–200.
Bara, A. C., & Arber, S. (2009). Working shifts and mental health--findings from the British household panel survey (1995–2005). Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 35(5), 361–367.
Barton, J. (1994). Choosing to work at night: A moderating influence on individual tolerance to shift work. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(3), 449–454.
Bildt, C., & Michelsen, H. (2002). Gender differences in the effects from working conditions on mental health: A 4-year follow-up. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 75(4), 252–258.
Boggild, H., Burr, H., Tuchsen, F., & Jeppesen, H. J. (2001). Work environment of Danish shift and day workers. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 27(2), 97–105.
Bohle, P., Quinlan, M., Kennedy, D., & Williamson, A. (2004). Working hours, work-life conflict and health in precarious and “permanent” employment. Revista de Saúde Pública, 38(Suppl), 19–25.
Bohle, P., Willaby, H., Quinlan, M., & McNamara, M. (2011). Flexible work in call centres: Working hours, work-life conflict & health. Applied Ergonomics, 42(2), 219–224.
Booker, L. A., Magee, M., Rajaratnam, S. M. W., Sletten, T. L., & Howard, M. E. (2018). Individual vulnerability to insomnia, excessive sleepiness and shift work disorder amongst healthcare shift workers. A systematic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 41, 220–233.
Byron, K. (2005). A meta-analytic review of work–family conXict and its antecedents. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67, 169–198.
Catano, V. M., & Bissonnette, A. B. (2014). Examining paid sickness absence by shift workers. Occupational Medicine (London), 64(4), 287–293.
Clissold, G., & Smith, P. (2002). A study of female nurses combining partner and parent roles with working a continuous three-shift roster: The impact on sleep, fatigue and stress. Contemporary Nurse, 12(3), 294–302.
Costa, G. (2010). Shift work and health: Current problems and preventive actions. Safety and Health at Work, 1(2), 112–123.
Costa, G., Sartori, S., & Akerstedt, T. (2006). Influence of flexibility and variability of working hours on health and Well-being. Chronobiology International, 23(6), 1125–1137.
d’Errico, A., & Costa, G. (2012). Socio-demographic and work-related risk factors for medium- and long-term sickness absence among Italian workers. European Journal of Public Health, 22(5), 683–688.
Driesen, K., Jansen, N. W., van Amelsvoort, L. G., & Kant, I. (2011). The mutual relationship between shift work and depressive complaints--a prospective cohort study. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 37(5), 402–410.
Eurofound. (2016). Sixth European working conditions survey – overview report. Publications Office of the European Union.
Field, J. C., & Chan, X. W. (2018). Contemporary knowledge workers and the Boundaryless work-life Interface: Implications for the human resource Management of the Knowledge Workforce. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2414.
Folkard, S. (1993). Editorial. Ergonomics., 36(1–3), 1–2.
Foss, L., Gravseth, H. M., Kristensen, P., Claussen, B., Mehlum, I. S., Knardahl, S., et al. (2011). The impact of workplace risk factors on long-term musculoskeletal sickness absence: A registry-based 5-year follow-up from the Oslo health study. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 53(12), 1478–1482.
Gao, Y., Gan, T., Jiang, L., Yu, L., Tang, D., Wang, Y., et al. (2020). Association between shift work and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies. Chronobiology International, 37(1), 29–46.
Geurts, S. A., & Sonnentag, S. (2006). Recovery as an explanatory mechanism in the relation between acute stress reactions and chronic health impairment. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 32(6), 482–492.
Grzywacz, J. G., Carlson, D. S., & Shulkin, S. (2008). Schedule flexibility and stress: Linking formal flexible arrangements and perceived flexibility to employee health. Community, Work & Family., 11(2), 199–214.
Hall, A. L., Kecklund, G., Leineweber, C., & Tucker, P. (2019). Effect of work schedule on prospective antidepressant prescriptions in Sweden: A 2-year sex-stratified analysis using national drug registry data. BMJ Open, 9(1), e023247.
Hammer, L. B., Neal, M. B., Newsom, J. T., Brockwood, K. J., & Colton, C. L. (2005). A longitudinal study of the effects of dual-earner couples’ utilization of family-friendly workplace supports on work and family outcomes. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(4), 799–810.
Hartig, T., Kylin, C., & Johansson, G. (2007). The telework trade-off: Stress mitigation vs. constrained restoration. Applied Psychology: An International Review., 56(2), 231–253.
IARC. (2019). Carcinogenicity of night shift work. The Lancet Oncology, 20(8), 1058–1059.
Jansen, N., Kant, I., van Amelsvoort, L., Nijhuis, F., & van den Brandt, P. (2003). Need for recovery from work: Evaluating short-term effects of working hours, patterns and schedules. Ergonomics, 46(7), 664–680.
Janssen, D., & Nachreiner, F. (2004). Health and psychosocial effects of flexible working hours. Revista de Saúde Pública, 38(Suppl), 11–18.
Jolly, S., Griffith, K. A., DeCastro, R., Stewart, A., Ubel, P., & Jagsi, R. (2014). Gender differences in time spent on parenting and domestic responsibilities by high-achieving young physician-researchers. Annals of Internal Medicine, 160(5), 344–353.
Joyce, K., Pabayo, R., Critchley, J. A., & Bambra, C. (2010). Flexible working conditions and their effects on employee health and wellbeing. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD008009.
Kervezee, L., Shechter, A., & Boivin, D. B. (2018). Impact of shift work on the circadian timing system and health in women. Sleep Medicine Clinics, 13(3), 295–306.
Kivimaki, M., Jokela, M., Nyberg, S. T., Singh-Manoux, A., Fransson, E. I., Alfredsson, L., et al. (2015). Long working hours and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: A systematic review and meta-analysis of published and unpublished data for 603,838 individuals. Lancet, 386(10005), 1739–1746.
Kossek, E. E., & Lee, M. D. (2008). Implementing a reduced-workload arrangement to retain high talent: A case study. Journal of Managerial Psychology., 11(1), 49–64.
Lammers-van der Holst, H. M., Van Dongen, H. P., Drosopoulos, S., & Kerkhof, G. A. (2016). Inter-individual differences in sleep response to shift work in novice police officers – a prospective study. Chronobiology International, 33(6), 671–677.
Larsen, A. D., Hannerz, H., Moller, S. V., Dyreborg, J., Bonde, J. P., Hansen, J., et al. (2017). Night work, long work weeks, and risk of accidental injuries. A register-based study. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 43(6), 578–586.
Lee, A., Myung, S. K., Cho, J. J., Jung, Y. J., Yoon, J. L., & Kim, M. Y. (2017). Night shift work and risk of depression: Meta-analysis of observational studies. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 32(7), 1091–1096.
Leineweber, C., Kecklund, G., Lindfors, P., & Magnusson Hanson, L. L. (2016). Change in work-time control and work-home interference among Swedish working men and women: Findings from the SLOSH cohort study. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 23(6), 670–678.
Lesuffleur, T., Chastang, J. F., Sandret, N., & Niedhammer, I. (2014). Psychosocial factors at work and sickness absence: Results from the French national SUMER survey. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 57(6), 695–708.
Lin, P. C., Chen, C. H., Pan, S. M., Pan, C. H., Chen, C. J., Chen, Y. M., et al. (2012). Atypical work schedules are associated with poor sleep quality and mental health in Taiwan female nurses. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 85(8), 877–884.
Lisspers, J., Almen, N., & Sundin, Ö. (2014). The effects of a recovery-focussed program for stress management in women. Health, 6, 2825–2836.
Liu, W., Zhou, Z., Dong, D., Sun, L., & Zhang, G. (2018). Sex differences in the association between night shift work and the risk of cancers: A meta-analysis of 57 articles. Disease Markers, 2018, 7925219.
Lyness, K. S., Gornick, J. C., Stone, P., & Grotto, A. R. (2012). It’s all about control: Worker control over schedule and hours in cross-National Context. American Sociological Review, 77(6), 1023–1049.
Martens, M. F. J., Nijhuis, F. J. N., van Boxtel, M. P. J., & Knottnerus, J. A. (1999). Flexible work schedules and mental and physical health. A study of a working population with non-traditional working hours. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 35–46.
Merkus, S. L., van Drongelen, A., Holte, K. A., Labriola, M., Lund, T., van Mechelen, W., et al. (2012). The association between shift work and sick leave: A systematic review. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 69(10), 701–712.
Moreno, C. R. C., Marqueze, E. C., Sargent, C., Wright, K. P., Jr., Ferguson, S. A., Jr., & Tucker, P. (2019). Working time society consensus statements: Evidence-based effects of shift work on physical and mental health. Industrial Health, 57(2), 139–157.
Nabe-Nielsen, K., Garde, A. H., Albertsen, K., & Diderichsen, F. (2011). The moderating effect of work-time influence on the effect of shift work: A prospective cohort study. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 84(5), 551–559.
Nachreiner, F., Arlinghaus, A., & Greubel, J. (2019). Variabilität der Arbeitszeit und Unfallrisiko [Variability of working hours and accident risk]. Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft, 73, 369–379.
Niedhammer, I., Chastang, J. F., & David, S. (2008). Importance of psychosocial work factors on general health outcomes in the national French SUMER survey. Occupational Medicine (London), 58(1), 15–24.
Niedhammer, I., Chastang, J. F., Sultan-Taieb, H., Vermeylen, G., & Parent-Thirion, A. (2013). Psychosocial work factors and sickness absence in 31 countries in Europe. European Journal of Public Health, 23(4), 622–629.
Nijp, H. H., Beckers, D. G., Geurts, S. A., Tucker, P., & Kompier, M. A. (2012). Systematic review on the association between employee worktime control and work-non-work balance, health and Well-being, and job-related outcomes. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 38(4), 299–313.
Plantenga, J., & Remery, C. (2009). Flexible working time arrangements and gender equality. A comparative review of 30 European countries. Publications Office of the European Union.
Puttonen, S., Harma, M., & Hublin, C. (2010). Shift work and cardiovascular disease – pathways from circadian stress to morbidity. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 36(2), 96–108.
Rao, D., Yu, H., Bai, Y., Zheng, X., & Xie, L. (2015). Does night-shift work increase the risk of prostate cancer? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Oncotargets and Therapy, 8, 2817–2826.
Ryu, J., Jung-Choi, K., Choi, K. H., Kwon, H. J., Kang, C., & Kim, H. (2017). Associations of shift work and its duration with work-related injury among electronics factory workers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(11), 1129.
Saksvik, I. B., Bjorvatn, B., Hetland, H., Sandal, G. M., & Pallesen, S. (2011). Individual differences in tolerance to shift work--a systematic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 15(4), 221–235.
Santhi, N., Lazar, A. S., McCabe, P. J., Lo, J. C., Groeger, J. A., & Dijk, D. J. (2016). Sex differences in the circadian regulation of sleep and waking cognition in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(19), E2730–E2739.
Schernhammer, E. S. (2017). RE: Night shift work and breast cancer incidence: three prospective studies and meta-analysis of published studies. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 109(4). https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djx002.
Schwarz, J., Lindberg, E., & Kecklund, G. (2015). Sleep as a means of recovery and restitution in women: The relation with psychosocial stress and health. In K. Orth-Gormer, N. Schneiderman, V. Vaccarino, & H. Deter (Eds.), Psychosocial stress and cardiovascular disease in women (pp. 105–127). Springer.
Slany, C., Schutte, S., Chastang, J. F., Parent-Thirion, A., Vermeylen, G., & Niedhammer, I. (2014). Psychosocial work factors and long sickness absence in Europe. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 20(1), 16–25.
Smith, P. M., Ibrahim-Dost, J., Keegel, T., & MacFarlane, E. (2013). Gender differences in the relationship between shiftwork and work injury: Examining the influence of dependent children. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 55(8), 932–936.
Sonnentag, S., & Fritz, C. (2015). Recovery from job stress: The stressor-detachment model as an integrative framework. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36, S72–S103.
Sverke, M., Falkenberg, H., Kecklund, G., Magnusson-Hanson, L., & Lindfors, P. (2016). Kvinnors och mäns arbetsvillkor: Betydelsen av organisatoriska faktor och psychosocial arbetsmiljö för arbets och hälsorelaterade utfall. [Women’s and men’s working conditions: The importance of organizational factors and psychosocial work environment for work and health-related outcomes]. Arbetsmiljöverket [Swedish Work Environment Agency].
Takahashi, M. (2012). Prioritizing sleep for healthy work schedules. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 31, 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1880-6805-31-6.
Thun, E., Bjorvatn, B., Torsheim, T., Moen, B. E., Mageroy, N., & Pallesen, S. (2014). Night work and symptoms of anxiety and depression among nurses: A longitudinal study. Work and Stress, 28(4), 376–386.
Torquati, L., Mielke, G. I., Brown, W. J., & Kolbe-Alexander, T. (2018). Shift work and the risk of cardiovascular disease. A systematic review and meta-analysis including dose-response relationship. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 44(3), 229–238.
Torquati, L., Mielke, G. I., Brown, W. J., Burton, N. W., & Kolbe-Alexander, T. L. (2019). Shift work and poor mental health: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. American Journal of Public Health, 109(11), e13–e20.
Travis, R. C., Balkwill, A., Fensom, G. K., Appleby, P. N., Reeves, G. K., Wang, X. S., et al. (2016). Night shift work and breast cancer incidence: three prospective studies and meta-analysis of published studies. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 108(12), djw169.
Tuchsen, F., Christensen, K. B., & Lund, T. (2008). Shift work and sickness absence. Occupational Medicine (London), 58(4), 302–304.
Tucker, P., & Folkard, S. (2012). Working time, health and safety: A research synthesis paper. International Labour Organization.
Tucker, P., Peristera, P., Leineweber, C., & Kecklund, G. (2020). Can psychosocial working conditions help to explain the impact of shiftwork on health in male- and female-dominated occupations? A prospective cohort study. Chronobiology International, 37(9-10), 1348–1356.
van Drongelen, A., Boot, C. R., Hlobil, H., van der Beek, A. J., & Smid, T. (2017). Cumulative exposure to shift work and sickness absence: Associations in a five-year historic cohort. BMC Public Health, 17(1), 67.
Virtanen, M., Ferrie, J. E., Gimeno, D., Vahtera, J., Elovainio, M., Singh-Manoux, A., et al. (2009). Long working hours and sleep disturbances: The Whitehall II prospective cohort study. Sleep, 32(6), 737–745.
Virtanen, M., Jokela, M., Madsen, I. E., Magnusson Hanson, L. L., Lallukka, T., Nyberg, S. T., et al. (2018). Long working hours and depressive symptoms: Systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies and unpublished individual participant data. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 44(3), 239–250.
Virtanen, M., Jokela, M., Nyberg, S. T., Madsen, I. E., Lallukka, T., Ahola, K., et al. (2015). Long working hours and alcohol use: Systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies and unpublished individual participant data. BMJ, 350, g7772.
Virtanen, M., & Kivimaki, M. (2018). Long working hours and risk of cardiovascular disease. Current Cardiology Reports, 20(11), 123.
Wang, X., Ji, A., Zhu, Y., Liang, Z., Wu, J., Li, S., et al. (2015). A meta-analysis including dose-response relationship between night shift work and the risk of colorectal cancer. Oncotarget, 6(28), 25046–25060.
Wang, F., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., Zhang, B., He, Y., Xie, S., et al. (2014). Meta-analysis on night shift work and risk of metabolic syndrome. Obesity Reviews, 15(9), 709–720.
Wegrzyn, L. R., Tamimi, R. M., Rosner, B. A., Brown, S. B., Stevens, R. G., Eliassen, A. H., et al. (2017). Rotating night-shift work and the risk of breast Cancer in the Nurses’ health studies. American Journal of Epidemiology, 186(5), 532–540.
Wong, I. S., McLeod, C. B., & Demers, P. A. (2011). Shift work trends and risk of work injury among Canadian workers. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 37(1), 54–61.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Constanze Leineweber for her insightful comments on an earlier draft.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Tucker, P. (2021). Gender Differences in the Impact of Work Hours on Health and Well-Being. In: Keisu, BI., Tafvelin, S., Brodin, H. (eds) Gendered Norms at Work. Aligning Perspectives on Health, Safety and Well-Being. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77734-0_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77734-0_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-77733-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-77734-0
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)