Abstract
Plastids are organelles that are a unique feature of plant cells. They represent an importantmetabolic and genetic compartment that is essential for almost all aspects in the life of a plant.Its endosymbiotic origin requires the establishment of novel signalling pathways between the organelleand the nucleus of the host cell. During evolution, therefore, a complex regulatory networkevolved that couples development and function of the organelles to that of the cell. Nowadays, thenucleus controls most aspects of plastids by providing proteins essential for plastid processes. This“anterograde” signalling, however, is complemented by a backward flow of informationfrom the plastid to the nucleus. This “retrograde” signalling represents a feedbackcontrol that reports the functional state of the organelle to the nucleus. This means that extensivecommunication between the two compartments is established. This helps the plant to perceive and respondproperly to varying environmental influences and to developmental signals at the cellular level. Theinteraction and mutual dependency of anterograde and retrograde signals are discussed with respectto recent observations. Models are presented that provide a unifying view of the different knownpathways.
Access provided by Autonomous University of Puebla. Download to read the full chapter text
Chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
References
Abdallah F, Salamini F, Leister D (2000) A prediction of the size and evolutionary origin of the proteome of chloroplasts of Arabidopsis. Trends Plant Sci 5:141–142
Acevedo-Hernandez G, Leon P, Herrera-Estrella L (2005) Sugar and ABA responsiveness of a minimal RBCS light-responsive unit is mediated by direct binding of ABI4. Plant J 43:506–519
Adam Z, Rudella A, van Wijk KJ (2006) Recent advances in the study of Clp, FtsH and other proteases located in chloroplasts. Curr Opin Plant Biol 9:234–240
Allen JF (1995) Thylakoid protein phosphorylation, state1-state 2 transitions, and photosystem stoichiometry adjustment: redox control at multiple levels of gene expression. Physiol Plant 93:196–205
Allen JF (2003) State transitions–a question of balance. Science 299:1530–1532
Allen JF, Pfannschmidt T (2000) Balancing the two photosystems: photosynthetic electron transfer governs transcription of reaction centre genes in chloroplasts. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 355:1351–1359
Allen JF, Race HL (2002) Will the real LHC II kinase please step forward? Sci STKE 2002:PE43
Allison LA (2000) The role of sigma factors in plastid transcription. Biochimie 82:537–548
Aluru MR, Bae H, Wu D, Rodermel SR (2001) The Arabidopsis immutans mutation affects plastid differentiation and the morphogenesis of white and green sectors in variegated plants. Plant Physiol 127:67–77
Aluru MR, Rodermel SR (2004) Control of chloroplast redox by the IMMUTANS terminal oxidase. Physiol Plant 120:4–11
Aluru MR, Yu F, Fu A, Rodermel S (2006) Arabidopsis variegation mutants: new insights into chloroplast biogenesis. J Exp Bot 57:1871–1881
Anderson JM, Chow WS, Park YI (1995) The grand design of photosynthesis: Acclimation of the photosynthetic apparatus to environmental cues. Photosynth Res 46:129–139
Aro EM, Andersson B (2001) Regulation of photosynthesis. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht
Apel K, Hirt H (2004) Reactive oxygen species: metabolism, oxidative stress, and signal transduction. Annu Rev Plant Biol 55:373–399
Armstrong GA, Runge S, Frick G, Sperling U, Apel K (1995) Identification of NADPH:protochlorophyllide oxidoreductases A and B: A branched pathway for light-dependent chlorophyll biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Physiol 108:1505–1517
Baier M, Dietz KJ (2005) Chloroplasts as source and target of cellular redox regulation: a discussion on chloroplast redox signals in the context of plant physiology. J Exp Bot 56:1449–1462
Ball L, Accotto GP, Bechtold U, Creissen G, Funck D, Jimenez A, Kular B, Leyland N, Mejia-Carranza J, Reynolds H, Karpinski S, Mullineaux PM (2004) Evidence for a direct link between glutathione biosynthesis and stress defense gene expression in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 16:2448–2462
Barkan A, Goldschmidt-Clermont M (2000) Participation of nuclear genes in chloroplast gene expression. Biochimie 82:559–572
Bartley GE, Scolnik PA, Giuliano G (1994) Molecular biology of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 45:287–301
Baumgartner BJ, Rapp JC, Mullet JE (1989) Plastid transcription and DNA copy number increase early in barley chloroplast development. Plant Physiol 89:1011–1018
Beck CF (2001) Signaling pathways in chloroplast-to-nucleus communication. Protist 152:175–182
Beck CF (2005) Signaling pathways from the chloroplast to the nucleus. Planta 222:743–756
Bellafiore S, Bameche F, Peltier G, Rochaix JD (2005) State transitions and light adaptation require chloroplast thylakoid protein kinase STN7. Nature 433:892–895
Bellaoui M, Gruissem W (2004) Altered expression of the Arabidopsis ortholog of DCL affects normal plant development. Planta 219:819–825
Bendich AJ (2004) Circular chloroplast chromosomes: the grand illusion. Plant Cell 16:1661–1666
Blankenship RE (2002) Molecular mechanisms of photosynthesis. Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford
Bock R, Koop HU (1997) Extraplastidic site-specific factors mediate RNA editing in chloroplasts. EMBO J 16:3282–3288
Bollenbach TJ, Schuster G, Stern DB (2004) Cooperation of endo- and exoribonucleases in chloroplast mRNA turnover. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol 78:305–337
Bonardi V, Pesaresi P, Becker T, Schleiff E, Wagner R, Pfannschmidt T, Jahns P, Leister D (2005) Photosystem II core phosphorylation and photosynthetic acclimation require two different protein kinases. Nature 437:1179–1182
Bradbeer JW, Atkinson YE, Börner T, Hagemann R (1979) Cytoplasmic synthesis of plastid polypeptides may be controlled by plastid synthesized RNA. Nature 279:816–817
Brown EC, Somanchi A, Mayfield SP (2001) Interorganellar crosstalk: new perspectives on signaling from the chloroplast to the nucleus. Genome Biol 2:1021
Brutnell TP, Sawers RJH, Mant A, Langdale JA (1999) Bundle sheath defective2, a novel protein required for post-translational regulation of the rbcL gene of maize. Plant Cell 11:849–864
Buchanan BB, Gruissem W, Jones RL (2002) Biochemistry and molecular biology of plants. John Wiley and Sons Inc, Somerset
Buchanan BB, Schurmann P, Jacquot JP (1994) Thioredoxin and metabolic regulation. Sem Cell Biol 5:285–293
Carlberg I, Hansson M, Kieselbach T, Schroder WP, Andersson B, Vener AV (2003) A novel plant protein undergoing light-induced phosphorylation and release from the photosynthetic thylakoid membranes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:757–762
Chamovitz D, Pecker I, Hirschberg J (1991) The molecular basis of resistance to the herbicide norflurazon. Plant Mol Biol 16:967–974
Chandok MR, Sopory SK, Oelmüller R (2001) Cytoplasmic kinase and phosphatase activities can induce PsaF gene expression in the absence of functional plastids: evidence that phosphorylation/dephosphorylation events are involved in interorganellar crosstalk. Mol Gen Genet 264:819–826
Chatterjee M, Sparvoli S, Edmunds C, Garosi P, Findlay K, Martin C (1996) DAG, a gene required for chloroplast differentiation and palisade development in Antirrhinum majus. EMBO J 15:4194–4207
Chen M, Choi Y, Voytas DF, Rodermel SR (2000) Mutations in the Arabidopsis Var2 locus cause leaf variegation due to the loss of a chloroplast FtsH protease. Plant J 22:303–313
Chen YB, Durnford DG, Koblizek M, Falkowski PG (2004) Plastid regulation of Lhcb1 transcription in the chlorophyte alga Dunaliella tertiolecta. Plant Physiol 136:3737–3750
Cohen A, Mayfield SP (1997) Translational regulation of gene expression in plants. Curr Opin Biotech 8:189–194
Cookson PJ, Kiano JW, Shipton CA, Fraser PD, Romer S, Schuch W, Bramley PM, Pyke KA (2003) Increases in cell elongation, plastid compartment size and phytoene synthase activity underlie the phenotype of the high pigment-1 mutant of tomato. Planta 217:896–903
Cornah JE, Terry MJ, Smith AG (2003) Green or red: what stops the traffic in the tetrapyrrole pathway? Trends Plant Sci 8:224–230
Couee I, Sulmon C, Gouesbet G, El Amrani A (2006) Involvement of soluble sugars in reactive oxygen species balance and responses to oxidative stress in plants. J Exp Bot 57:449–459
Danon A (1997) Translational regulation in the chloroplast. Plant Physiol 115:1293–1298
Danon A, Miersch O, Felix G, Camp RG, Apel K (2005) Concurrent activation of cell death-regulating signaling pathways by singlet oxygen in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant J 41:68–80
Davison PA, Schubert HL, Reid JD, Iorg CD, Heroux A, Hill CP, Hunter CN (2005) Structural and biochemical characterization of Gun4 suggests a mechanism for its role in chlorophyll biosynthesis. Biochemistry 44:7603–7612
Davletova S, Rizhsky L, Liang H, Shengqiang Z, Oliver DJ, Coutu J, Shulaev V, Schlauch K, Mittler R (2005) Cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase 1 is a central component of the reactive oxygen gene network of Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 17:268–281
Delwiche C (1999) Tracing the thread of plastid diversity through the tapestry of life. Am Nat 154:S164–S177
Deng XW, Gruissem W (1987) Control of plastid gene expression during development: the limited role of transcriptional regulation. Cell 49:379–387
Depège N, Bellafiore S, Rochaix JD (2003) Role of chloroplast protein kinase Stt7 in LHCII phosphorylation and state transition in Chlamydomonas. Science 299:1572–1575
Desikan R, S AH-M, Hancock JT, Neill SJ (2001) Regulation of the Arabidopsis transcriptome by oxidative stress. Plant Physiol 127:159–172
Dubell AN, Mullet JE (1995b) Differential transcription of pea chloroplast genes during light-induced leaf development transcription – Continuous far-red light activates chloroplast transcription. Plant Physiol 109:104–112
Durnford DG, Falkowski PG (1997) Chloroplast redox regulation of nuclear gene transcription during photoacclimation. Photosynth Res 53:229–241
Dyall SD, Brown MT, Johnson PJ (2004) Ancient invasions: From endosymbionts to organelles. Science 340:253–257
Emes MJ, Tobin AK (1993) Control of metabolism and development in higher plant plastids. Int Rev Cyt 145:149–216
Escoubas JM, Lomas M, LaRoche J, Falkowski PG (1995) Light intensity regulation of cab gene transcription is signaled by the redox state of the plastoquinone pool. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:10237–10241
Ewing RM, Jenkins GI, Langdale JA (1998) Transcripts of maize RbcS genes accumulate differentially in C-3 and C-4 tissues. Plant Mol Biol 36:593–599
Fey V, Wagner R, Bräutigam K, Pfannschmidt T (2005a) Photosynthetic redox control of nuclear gene expression. J Exp Bot 56:1491–1498
Fey V, Wagner R, Bräutigam K, Wirtz M, Hell R, Dietzmann A, Leister D, Oelmüller R, Pfannschmidt T (2005b) Retrograde plastid redox signals in the expression of nuclear genes for chloroplast proteins of Arabidopsis thaliana. J Biol Chem 280:5318–5328
Foyer CH, Noctor G (1999) Plant biology – Leaves in the dark see the light. Science 284:599–601
Fraser PD, Schuch W, Bramley PM (2000) Phytoene synthase from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) chloroplasts – partial purification and biochemical properties. Planta 211:361–369
Freyer R, Kiefer-Meyer MC, Kossel H (1997) Occurrence of plastid RNA editing in all major lineages of land plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:6285–6290
Fryer MJ, Ball L, Oxborough K, Karpinski S, Mullineaux PM, Baker NR (2003) Control of ascorbate peroxidase 2 expression by hydrogen peroxide and leaf water status during excess light stress reveals a functional organisation of Arabidopsis leaves. Plant J 33:691–705
Geigenberger P, Kolbe A, Tiessen A (2005) Redox regulation of carbon storage and partitioning in response to light and sugars. J Exp Bot 56:1469–1479
Giovannoni JJ (2004) Genetic regulation of fruit development and ripening. Plant Cell 16:S160–S170
Goldschmidt-Clermont M (1998) Coordination of nuclear and chloroplast gene expression in plant cells. Int Rev Cytol 177:115–180
Gray JC, Sornarajah R, Zabron AA, Duckett CM, Khan MS (1995) Chloroplast control of nuclear gene expression. In: Mathijs P (ed) Photosynthesis, from light to biosphere. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 543–550
Gray JC, Sullivan JA, Wang JH, Jerome CA, MacLean D (2003) Coordination of plastid and nuclear gene expression. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 358:135–144
Grimm B (2003) Regulatory mechanisms of eukaryotic tetrapyrrole biosynthesis. In: Kadish KM, Smith KM, Guilard R (eds) The Porphyrin Handbook, Vol 12. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 1–32
Gruissem W (1989) Chloroplast gene expression: how plants turn their plastids on. Cell 56:161–170
Gupta AK, Kaur N (2005) Sugar signalling and gene expression in relation to carbohydrate metabolism under abiotic stresses in plants. J Biosci 30:761–776
Haldrup A, Jensen PE, Lunde C, Scheller HV (2001) Balance of power: a view of the mechanism of photosynthetic state transitions. Trends Plant Sci 6:301–305
Hanaoka M, Kanamura M, Fujiwara M, Takahashi H, Tanaka K (2005) Glutamyl-tRNA mediates a switch in RNA polymerase use during chloroplast biogenesis. EMBO Rep 6:545–550
Herrin D, Battey J, Greer K, Schmidt G (1992) Regulation of chlorophyll apoprotein expression and accumulation. Requirements for carotenoids and chlorophyll. J Biol Chem 267:8260–8269
Herrmann RG, Westhoff P, Link G (1992) Biogenesis of plastids in higher plants.Springer Verlag, Wien
Hess WR, Börner T (1999) Organellar RNA polymerases of higher plants. Int Rev Cytol 190:1–59
Hess WR, Schendel R, Börner T, Rüdiger W (1991) Reduction of mRNA levels for two nuclear encoded light regulated genes in the barley mutant albostrians is not correlated with phytochrome content and activity. J Plant Physiol 138:292–298
Hou CX, Rintamäki E, Aro E-M (2003) Ascorbate-mediated LHCII protein phosphorylation – LHCII kinase regulation in light and in darkness. Biochemistry 42:5828–5836
Howe CJ, Barbrook AC, Koumandou VL, Nisbet RER, Symington HA, Wightman TF (2003) Evolution of the chloroplast genome. Phil Trans Roy Soc Lond B Biol Sci 358:99–106
Hricova A, Quesada V, Micol JL (2006) The SCABRA3 nuclear gene encodes the plastid RpoTp RNA polymerase, which is required for chloroplast biogenesis and mesophyll cell proliferation in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol 141:942–956
Jarvis P (2001) Intracellular signalling: the chloroplast talks! Curr Biol 11:R307–310
Johanningmeier U, Howell S (1984) Regulation of light-harvesting chlorophyll-binding protein mRNA accumulation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Possible involvement of chlorophyll synthesis precursors. J Biol Chem 259:13541–13549
Josse EM (2000) A plastid terminal oxidase associated with carotenoid desaturation during chromoplast differentiation. Plant Physiol 123:1427–1436
Kanamaru K, Nagashima A, Fujiwara M, Shimada H, Shirano Y, Nakabayashi K, Shibata D, Tanaka K, Takahashi H (2001) An Arabidopsis sigma factor (SIG2)-dependent expression of plastid encoded tRNAs in chloroplasts. Plant Cell Physiol 42:1034–1043
Kanamaru K, Tanaka K (2004) Roles of chloroplast RNA polymerase sigma factors in chloroplast development and stress response in higher plants. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 68:2215–2223
Karpinski S, Escobar C, Karpinska B, Creissen G, Mullineaux PM (1997) Photosynthetic electron transport regulates the expression of cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase genes in Arabidopsis during excess light stress. Plant Cell 9:627–640
Karpinski S, Reynolds H, Karpinska B, Wingsle G, Creissen G, Mullineaux P (1999) Systemic signaling and acclimation in response to excess excitation energy in Arabidopsis. Science 284:654–657
Keddie JS (1996) The DCL gene from tomato is required for chloroplast development and palisade cell morphogenesis in leaves. EMBO J 15:4208–4217
Kessler F, Schnell DJ (2006) The function and diversity of plastid protein import pathways: a multilane GTPase highway into plastids. Traffic 7:248–257
Kimura M, Manabe K, Abe T, Yoshida S, Matsui M, Yamamoto YY (2003) Analysis of hydrogen peroxide-independent expression of the high-light-inducible ELIP2 gene with the aid of the ELIP2 promoter-luciferase fusions. Photochem Photobiol 77:668–674
Kittsteiner U, Brunner H, Rüdiger W (1991) The greening process in cress seedlings. II. Complexing agents and 5-aminolevulinate inhibit accumulation of cab-mRNA coding for the light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b protein. Physiol Plant 81:190–196
Kleffmann T, Russenberger D, Von Zychlinski A, Christopher W, Sjölander K, Gruissem W, Baginsky S (2004) The Arabidopsis thaliana chloroplast proteome reveals pathway abundance and novel protein functions. Curr Biol 14:354–362
Kopriva S, Rennenberg H (2004) Control of sulphate assimilation and glutathione synthesis: interaction with N and C metabolism. J Exp Bot 55:1831–1842
Kovtun Y, Chiu WL, Tena G, Sheen L (2000) Functional analysis of oxidative stress-activated mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade in plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:2940–2945
Kropat J, Oster U, Rüdiger W, Beck C (1997) Chlorophyll precursors are signals of chloroplast origin involved in light induction of nuclear heat-shock genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:14168–14172
Küchler M, Decker S, Hormann F, Soll J, Heins L (2002) Protein import into chloroplasts involves redox-regulated proteins. EMBO J 21:6136–6145
Kurth J, Varotto C, Pesaresi P, Biehl A, Richly E, Salamini F, Leister D (2002) Gene-sequence-tag expression analyses of 1,800 genes related to chloroplast functions. Planta 215:101–109
Larkin RM, Alonso JM, Ecker JR, Chory J (2003) GUN4, a regulator of chlorophyll synthesis and intracellular signaling. Science 299:902–906
Leister D (2005) Genomics-based dissection of the cross-talk of chloroplasts with the nucleus and mitochondria in Arabidopsis. Gene 354:110–116
Leon P, Arroyo A, Mackenzie S (1998) Nuclear control of plastid and mitochondrial development in higher plants. Ann Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 49:453–480
Liere K, Börner T (2006) Transcription of plastid genes. In: Grasser KD (ed) Regulation of transcription in plants. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford, pp 184–224
Liere K, Maliga P (2001) Plastid RNA Polymerases in higher plants. In: Aro EM, Andersson B (eds) Regulation of photosynthesis. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 29–49
Link G (1991) Photoregulated development of chloroplasts. In: Bogorad L, Vasil IK (eds) The photosynthetic apparatus: molecular biology and operation. Cell culture and somatic cell genetics of plants. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 365–394
Link G (1996) Green life: Control of chloroplast gene transcription. BioEssays 18:465–471
Link G (2003) Redox regulation of chloroplast transcription. Antioxid Redox Signal 5:79–87
Ljubicic JM, Wrischer M, Ljubicic N (1998) Formation of the photosynthetic apparatus in plastids during greening of potato microtubers. Plant Physiol Biochem 36:747–752
Lopez-Juez E, Pyke KA (2005) Plastids unleashed: their development and their integration in plant development. Int J Dev Biol 49:557–577
Lorrain S, Genoud T, Fankhauser C (2006) Let there be light in the nucleus! Curr Opin Plant Biol 9:509–514
Lu S, Van Eck J, Zhou X, Lopez AB, O'Halloran DM, Cosman KM, Conlin BJ, Paolillo DJ, Garvin DF, Vrebalov J, Kochian LV, Küpper H, Earle ED, Cao J, Li L (2006) The cauliflower Or gene encodes a DnaJ cysteine-rich domain-containing protein that mediates high levels of β-carotene accumulation. Plant Cell 18:3594–3605
Martin W, Rujan T, Richly E, Hansen A, Cornelsen S, Lins T, Leister D, Stoebe B, Hasegawa M, Penny D (2002) Evolutionary analysis of Arabidopsis, cyanobacterial, and chloroplast genomes reveals plastid phylogeny and thousands of cyanobacterial genes in the nucleus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:12246–12251
Martin W, Schnarrenberger C (1997) The evolution of the Calvin cycle from prokaryotic to eukaryotic chromosomes: a case study of functional redundancy in ancient pathways through endosymbiosis. Curr Genet 332:1–18
Matthews DE, Durbin RD (1990) Tagetitoxin inhibits RNA synthesis directed by RNA polymerases from chloroplasts and Escherichia coli. J Biol Chem 265:493–498
Maxwell DP, Laudenbach DE, Huner N (1995) Redox regulation of light-harvesting complex II and cab mRNA abundance in Dunaliella salina. Plant Physiol 109:787–795
Mayfield S, Nelson T, Taylor W, Malkin R (1986) Carotenoid synthesis and pleiotropic effects in carotenoid-deficient seedlings of maize. Planta 169:23–32
Mayfield S, Taylor W (1984) Carotenoid-deficient maize seedlings fail to accumulate light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding protein (LHCP) mRNA. Eur J Biochem 144:79–84
Mehler AH (1951) Studies on reactions of illuminated chloroplasts. I. Mechanism of the reduction of oxygen and other Hill reagents. Arch Biochem 33:65–77
Melis A (1991) Dynamics of photosynthetic membrane-composition and function. Biochim Biophys Acta 1058:87–106
Meskauskiene R, Nater M, Goslings D, Kessler F, op den Camp R, Apel K (2001) FLU: a negative regulator of chlorophyll biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:12826–12831
Mingo Castel AM, Pelacho AM, De Felipe MC (1991) Amyloplast division in kinetin induced potato tubers. Plant Sci 73:211–217
Miyazawa Y, Sakai A, Miyagishima S-Y, Takano H, Kawano S, Kuroiwa T (1999) Auxin and cytokinin have opposite effects on amyloplast development and the expression of starch synthesis genes in cultured Bright Yellow 2-cells. Plant Physiol 121:461–469
Mochizuki N, Brusslan J, Larkin R, Nagatani A, Chory J (2001) Arabidopsis genomes uncoupled 5 (GUN5) mutant reveals the involvement of Mg-chelatase H subunit in plastid-to-nucleus signal transduction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:2053–2058
Mochizuki N, Susek R, Chory J (1996) An intracellular signal transduction pathway between the chloroplast and nucleus is involved in de-etiolation. Plant Physiol 112:1465–1469
Moller S, Kunkel T, Chua N (2001) A plastidic ABC protein involved in intercompartmental communication of light signaling. Genes Dev 15:90–103
Mullet JE, Klein RR (1987) Transcription and RNA stability are important determinants of higher plant chloroplast RNA levels. EMBO J 6:1571–1579
Mullineaux P, Karpinski S (2002) Signal transduction in response to excess light: getting out of the chloroplast. Curr Opin Plant Biol 5:43–48
Mullineaux PM, Rausch T (2005) Glutathione, photosynthesis and the redox regulation of stress-responsive gene expression. Photosynth Res 86:459–474
Neuhaus E, Emes MJ (2000) Nonphotosynthetic metabolism in plastids. Ann Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 51:111–140
Nickelsen J (2003) Chloroplast RNA-binding proteins. Curr Genet 43:392–399
Nixon PJ, Barker M, Boehm M, de Vries R, Komenda J (2005) FtsH-mediated repair of the photosystem II complex in response to light stress. J Exp Bot 56:357–363
Niyogi KK (2000) Safety valves for photosynthesis. Curr Opin Plant Biol 3:455–460
Noctor G, Gomez L, Vanacker H, Foyer C (2002) Interactions between biosynthesis, compartmentation and transport in the control of glutathione homeostasis and signalling. J Exp Bot 53:1283–1304
Nott A, Jung HS, Koussevitzky S, Chory J (2006) Plastid-to-nucleus retrograde signaling. Annu Rev Plant Biol 57:739–759
Oelmüller R (1989) Photooxidative destruction of chloroplasts and its effect on nuclear gene-expression and extraplastidic enzyme levels. Photochem Photobiol 49:229–239
Oelmüller R, Levitan I, Bergfeld R, Rajasekhar V, Mohr H (1986) Expression of nuclear genes as affected by treatments acting on the plastids. Planta 168:482–492
Oelmüller R, Mohr H (1986) Photooxidative destruction of chloroplasts and its consequences for expression of nuclear genes. Planta 167:106–113
Ogawa K, Hatano-Iwasaki A, Yanagida M, Iwabuchi M (2004) Level of glutathione is regulated by ATP-dependent ligation of glutamate and cysteine through photosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana: mechanism of strong interaction of light intensity with flowering. Plant Cell Physiol 45:1–8
Ogrzewalla K, Piotrowski M, Reinbothe S, Link G (2002) The plastid transcription kinase from mustard (Sinapis alba L.) – A nuclear-encoded CK2-type chloroplast enzyme with redox- sensitive function. Eur J Biochem 269:3329–3337
op den Camp RG, Przybyla D, Ochsenbein C, Laloi C, Kim C, Danon A, Wagner D, Hideg E, Gobel C, Feussner I, Nater M, Apel K (2003) Rapid induction of distinct stress responses after the release of singlet oxygen in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 15:2320–2332
Osteryoung KW, Vierling E (1995) Conserved cell and organelle division. Nature 376:473–474
Oswald O, Martin T, Dominy PJ, Graham IA (2001) Plastid redox state and sugars: Interactive regulators of nuclear-encoded photosynthetic gene expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:2047–2052
Papenbrock J, Grimm B (2001) Regulatory network of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis-studies of intracellular signalling involved in metabolic and developmental control of plastids. Planta 213:667–681
Pastori G, Kiddle G, Antoniw J, Bernard S, Veljovic-Jovanovic S, Verrier P, Noctor G, Christine H (2003) Leaf vitamin C contents modulate plant defense transcripts and regulate genes that control development through hormone signaling. Plant Cell 15:939–951
Peltier JB, Ytterberg AJ, Sun Q, van Wijk KJ (2004) New functions of the thylakoid membrane proteome of Arabidopsis thaliana revealed by a simple, fast and versatile fractionation strategy. J Biol Chem 279:49367–49383
Pesaresi P, Masiero S, Eubel H, Braun HP, Bhushan S, Glaser E, Salamini F, Leister D (2006) Nuclear photosynthetic gene expression is synergistically modulated by rates of protein synthesis in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant Cell 18:970–991
Petracek ME, Dickey LF, Huber SC, Thompson WF (1997) Light-regulated changes in abundance and polyribosome association of ferredoxin mRNA are dependent on photosynthesis. Plant Cell 9:2291–2300
Petracek ME, Dickey LF, Nguyen TT, Gatz C, Sowinski DA, Allen GC, Thompson WF (1998) Ferredoxin-1 mRNA is destabilized by changes in photosynthetic electron transport. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:9009–9013
Pfannschmidt T (2003) Chloroplast redox signals: how photosynthesis controls its own genes. Trends Plant Sci 8:33–41
Pfannschmidt T (2005) Acclimation to varying light qualities: Toward the functional relationship of state transitions and adjustment of photosystem stoichiometry. J Phycol 41:723–725
Pfannschmidt T, Liere K (2005) Redox regulation and modification of proteins controlling chloroplast gene expression. Antioxid Redox Signal 7:607–618
Pfannschmidt T, Link G (1994) Separation of two classes of plastid DNA-dependent RNA polymerases that are differentially expressed in mustard (Sinapis alba L.) seedlings. Plant Mol Biol 25:69–81
Pfannschmidt T, Link G (1997) The A and B forms of plastid DNA-dependent RNA polymerase from mustard (Sinapis alba L.) transcribe the same genes in a different developmental context. Mol Gen Genet 257:35–44
Pfannschmidt T, Nilsson A, Allen JF (1999) Photosynthetic control of chloroplast gene expression. Nature 397:625–628
Pfannschmidt T, Ogrzewalla K, Baginsky S, Sickmann A, Meyer HE, Link G (2000) The multisubunit chloroplast RNA polymerase A from mustard (Sinapis alba L.) – Integration of a prokaryotic core into a larger complex with organelle-specific functions. Eur J Biochem 267:253–261
Pfannschmidt T, Schütze K, Brost M, Oelmüller R (2001) A novel mechanism of nuclear photosynthesis gene regulation by redox signals from the chloroplast during photosystem stoichiometry adjustment. J Biol Chem 276:36125–36130
Pfannschmidt T, Schütze K, Fey V, Sherameti I, Oelmüller R (2003) Chloroplast redox control of nuclear gene expression – A new class of plastid signals in interorganellar communication. Antioxid Redox Signal 5:95–101
Piippo M, Allahverdiyeva Y, Paakkarinen V, Suoranta UM, Battchikova N, Aro EM (2006) Chloroplastd-mediated regulation of nuclear genes in Arabidopsis thaliana in the absence of light stress. Physiol Genom 13:142–152
Puente P, Wei N, Deng X (1996) Combinatorial interplay of promoter elements constitutes the minimal determinants for light and developmental control of gene expression in Arabidopsis. EMBO J 15:3732–3743
Pursiheimo S, Mulo P, Rintamäki E, Aro EM (2001) Coregulation of light-harvesting complex II phosphorylation and lhcb mRNA accumulation in winter rye. Plant J 26:317–327
Pyke KA (1999) Plastid division and development. Plant Cell 11:549–556
Pyke KA, Leech RM (1994) A genetic analysis of chloroplast division and expansion in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Physiol 104:201–207
Race HL, Herrmann RG, Martin W (1999) Why have organelles retained genomes? Trends Genet 15:364–370
Reinbothe C, Bartsch S, Eggink LL, Hoober K, Brusslan J, Andrade-Paz R, Monnet J, Reinbothe S (2006) A role for chlorophyllide a oxygenase in the regulated import and stabilization of light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:4777–4782
Richly E, Dietzmann A, Biehl A, Kurth J, Laloi C, Apel K, Salamini F, Leister D (2003) Covariations in the nuclear chloroplast transcriptome reveal a regulatory master-switch. EMBO Rep 4:491–498
Robinson C, Thompson SJ, Woodhead C (2001) Multiple pathways used for the targeting of thylakoid proteins in chloroplasts. Traffic 2:245–251
Rodermel S (2001) Pathways of plastid-to-nucleus signaling. Trends Plant Sci 6:471–478
Rüdiger W, Grimm B (2006) Chlorophyll metabolism, an overview. In: Grimm B, Porra RJ, Rüdiger W, Scheer H (eds) Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 133–146
Sakamoto W (2003) Leaf-variegated mutations and their responsible genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. Genes Genet Syst 78:1–9
Sato N (2001) Was the evolution of plastid genetic machinery discontinuous? Trends Plant Sci 6:151–155
Schäfer E, Bowler C (2002) Phytochrome-mediated photoperception and signal transduction in higher plants. EMBO Rep 3:1042–1048
Scheibe R (1991) Redox-modulation of chloroplast enzymes. A common principle for individual control. Plant Physiol 96:1–3
Soll J, Schleiff E (2004) Protein import into chloroplasts. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 5:198–208
Schmitz-Linneweber C, Williams-Carrier RE, Williams-Voelker PM, Kroeger TS, Vichas A, Barkan A (2006) A pentatricopeptide repeat protein facilitates the trans-splicing of the maize chloroplast rps12 pre-mRNA. Plant Cell 8:2650–2663
Schwacke R, Fischer K, Ketelsen B, Krupinska K, Krause K (2007) Comparative survey of plastid and mitochondrial targeting properties of transcription factors in Arabidopsis and rice. Mol Genet Genomics (doi:10.1007/s00438–007-0214–4)
Seo M, Koshiba T (2002) Complex regulation of ABA biosynthesis in plants. Trends Plant Sci 7:41–48
Shao N, Vallon O, Dent R, Niyogi KK, Beck CF (2006) Defects in the cytochrome b6/f complex prevent light-induced expression of nuclear genes involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis. Plant Physiol 141:1128–1137
Shen Y, Wang X, Wu F, Du S, Cao Z, Shang Y, Wang X, Peng C, Yu X, Zhu S (2006) The Mg-chelatase H subunit is an abscisic acid receptor. Nature 443:823–826
Sherameti I, Sopory S K, Trebicka A, Pfannschmidt T, Oelmüller R (2002) Photosynthetic electron transport determines nitrate reductase gene expression and activity in higher plants. J Biol Chem 277:46594–46600
Shigeoka S, Ishikawa T, Tamoi M, Miyagawa Y, Takeda T, Yabuta Y, Yoshimura K (2002) Regulation and function of ascorbate peroxidase isoenzymes. J Exp Bot 53:1305–1319
Shikanai T (2006) RNA editing in plant organelles: machinery, physiological function and evolution. Cell Mol Life Sci 63:698–708
Shiina T, Tsunoyama Y, Nakahira Y, Khan MS (2005) Plastid RNA polymerases, promoters, and transcription regulators in higher plants. Int Rev Cytol 244:1–68
Soll J (2002) Protein import into chloroplasts. Curr Opin Plant Biol 5:529–535
Stern D, Higgs D, Yang J (1997) Transcription and translation in chloroplasts. Trends Plant Sci 2:308–315
Stoebe B, Maier UG (2002) One, two, three: nature's tool box for building plastids. Protoplasma 219:123–130
Strand A (2004) Plastid-to-nucleus signalling. Curr Opin Plant Biol 7:621–625
Strand A, Asami T, Alonso J, Ecker JR, Chory J (2003) Chloroplast to nucleus communication triggered by accumulation of Mg-protoporphyrinIX. Nature 421:79–83
Streatfield SJ, Weber A, Kinsman EA, Häusler RE, Li J, Post-Beittenmiller D, Kaiser WM, Pyke KA, Flügge UI, Chory J (1999) The phosphoenolpyruvate/phosphate translocator is required for phenolic metabolism, palisade cell development, and plastid-dependent nuclear gene expression. Plant Cell 11:1609–1622
Sugiura M (1992) The chloroplast genome. Plant Mol Biol 19:149–168
Sugiura M (1995) The chloroplast genome. Essays Biochem 30:49–57
Sullivan JA, Gray JC (1999) Plastid translation is required for the expression of nuclear photosynthesis genes in the dark and in roots of the pea lip1 mutant. Plant Cell 11:901–910
Sullivan JA, Gray JC (2002) Multiple plastid genes regulate the expression of the pea plastocyanin gene in pea and transgenic tobacco plants. Plant J 32:763–774
Surpin M, Larkin R, Chory J (2002) Signal transduction between the chloroplast and the nucleus. Plant Cell 14:327–338
Susek R, Ausubel F, Chory J (1993) Signal transduction mutants of Arabidopsis uncouple nuclear CAB and RBCS gene expression from chloroplast development. Cell 74:787–799
Suzuki JY, Ytterberg AJ, Beardslee TA, Allison L, van Wijk KJ, Maliga P (2004) Affinity purification of the tobacco plastid RNA polymerase and in vitro reconstitution of the holoenzyme. Plant J 40:164–172
Takechi K, Sodmergen P, Murata M, Motoyoshi F, Sakamoto W (2000) The YELLOW VARIEGATED (VAR2) locus encodes a homologue of FtsH, an ATP-dependent protease in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell Physiol 41:1334–1346
Taylor WC (1989) Regulatory interactions between nuclear and plastid genomes. Ann Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 40:211–233
The Arabidopsis Genome Initiative (2000) Analysis of the genome sequence of the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Nature 408:796–815
Terzaghi W, Cashmore A (1995) Light-regulated transcription. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 445:74
Tikkanen M, Piippo M, Suorsa M, Sirpio S, Mulo P, Vainonen J, Vener AV, Allahverdiyeva Y, Aro EM (2006) State transitions revisited-a buffering system for dynamic low light acclimation of Arabidopsis. Plant Mol Biol 62:779–793
Tiller K, Link G (1993) Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation affect functional characteristics of chloroplast and etioplast transcription systems from mustard (Sinapis alba L.). EMBO J 12:1745–1753
Tilney-Basset RAE (1978) The inheritance and behaviour of plastids. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Timmis JN, Ayliffe MA, Huang CY, Martin W (2004) Endosymbiotic gene transfer: organelle genomes forge eukaryotic chromosomes. Nature Rev Genet 5:123–136
Trebst A (1980) Inhibitors in electron flow: tools for the functional and structural localization of carriers and energy conservation sites. Methods Enzymol 69:675–715
van Wijk KJ (2004) Plastid proteomics. Plant Physiol Biochem 42:963–977
Vandenabeele S, Van Der Kelen K, Dat J, Gadjev I, Boonefaes T, Morsa S, Rottiers P, Slooten L, Van Montagu M, Zabeau M, Inze D, Van Breusegem F (2003) A comprehensive analysis of hydrogen peroxide-induced gene expression in tobacco. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:16113–16118
Vinti G, Fourrier N, Bowyer JR, Lopez-Juez E (2005) Arabidopsis cue mutants with defective plastids are impaired primarily in the photocontrol of the expression of photosynthesis-associated nuclear genes. Plant Mol Biol 57:343–357
Vinti G, Hills A, Campbell S, Bowyer J, Mochizuki N, Chory J, Lopez-Juez E (2000) Interactions between hy 1 and gun mutants of Arabidopsis, and their implications for plastid/nuclear signalling. Plant J 24:883–894
Vener A, van Kan PJ, Rich PR, Ohad II, Andersson B (1997) Plastoquinol at the quinol oxidation site of reduced cytochrome bf mediates signal transduction between light and protein phosphorylation: Thylakoid protein kinase deactivation by a single-turnover flash. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:1585–1590
Verdecia MA, Larkin RM, Ferrer JL, Riek R, Chory J, Noel JP (2005) Structure of the Mg-chelatase cofactor GUN4 reveals a novel hand-shaped fold for porphyrin binding. PLoS Biol 3:e151
Von Wettstein D, Gough S, Kannangara CG (1995) Chlorophyll biosynthesis. Plant Cell 7:1039–1057
Wachter A, Wolf S, Steininger H, Bogs J, Rausch T (2005) Differential targeting of GSH1 and GSH2 is achieved by multiple transcription initiation: implications for the compartmentation of glutathione biosynthesis in the Brassicaceae. Plant J 41:15–30
Wagner D, Przybyla D, Op den Camp R, Kim C, Landgraf F, Lee KP, Wursch M, Laloi C, Nater M, Hideg E, Apel K (2004) The genetic basis of singlet oxygen-induced stress responses of Arabidopsis thaliana. Science 306:1183–1185
Wagner R, Pfannschmidt T (2006) Eukaryotic transcription factors in plastids – Bioinformatic assessment and implications for the evolution of gene expression machineries in plants. Gene 381:62–70
Walters RG (2005) Towards an understanding of photosynthetic acclimation. J Exp Bot 56:435–447
Walters RG, Horton P (1994) Acclimation of Arabidopsis thaliana to the light environment: Changes in composition of the photosynthetic apparatus. Planta 195:248–256
Wang HY, Deng XW (2003) Dissecting the phytochrome A-dependent signalling network in higher plants. Trends Plant Sci 8:172–178
Waters M, Pyke KA (2004) Plastid development and differentiation. In: Moller SG (ed) Plastids. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 30–59
Willows R, Hansson M (2003) Mechanism, structure, and regulation of magnesium chelatase. In: Kadish KM, Smith K, Guilard R (eds) The Porphyrin Handbook II, Vol 13. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 1–47
Wingler A, Purdy S, MacLean JA, Pourtau N (2006) The role of sugars in integrating environmental signals during the regulation of leaf senescence. J Exp Bot 57:391–399
Woitsch S, Römer S (2003) Expression of xanthophyll biosynthetic genes during light-dependent chloroplast differentiation. Plant Physiol 132:1508–1517
Xu XM, Adams S, Chua N-H, Moller SG (2005) AtNAP1 represents an atypical SufB protein in Arabidopsis plastids. J Biol Chem 280:6648–6654
Yabuta Y, Maruta T, Yoshimura K, Ishikawa T, Shigeoka S (2004) Two distinct redox signaling pathways for cytosolic APX induction under photooxidative stress. Plant Cell Physiol 45:1586–1594
Yang DH, Andersson B, Aro EM, Ohad I (2001) The redox state of the plastoquinone pool controls the level of the light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding protein complex II (LHC II) during photoacclimation. Photosynth Res 68:163–174
Zhang LX, Paakkarinen V, van Wijk KJ, Aro EM (2000) Biogenesis of the chloroplast-encoded D1 protein: Regulation of translation elongation, insertion, and assembly into photosystem II. Plant Cell 12:1769–1781
Zito F, Finazzi G, Delosme R, Nitschke W, Picot D, Wollman FA (1999) The Q O site of cytochrome b6f complexes controls the activation of the LHCII kinase. EMBO J 18:2961–2969
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2007 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bräutigam, K., Dietzel, L., Pfannschmidt, T. (2007). Plastid-nucleus communication: anterograde and retrograde signalling in the development and function of plastids. In: Bock, R. (eds) Cell and Molecular Biology of Plastids. Topics in Current Genetics, vol 19. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/4735_2007_0243
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/4735_2007_0243
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-75375-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-75376-6
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)