1 Introduction

Trust in government has been a topic of interest and debate among researchers and politicians (Liu & Raine, 2016). Trust in governmental institutions guarantees the political organization’s sustainability, viability, and legitimacy (Van der Meer & Zmerli, 2017). Likewise, trust in the government encourages compliance with laws and regulations and facilitates policy execution (Güzel et al., 2019; OECD, 2013). Similarly, the citizens’ trust in local authorities is a necessary resource that enables local governments to experiment and adopt risky policies (Fitzgerald & Wolak, 2016). The decreased trust in the government is a symptom of dissatisfaction with democratic institutions and processes. Therefore, trust is essential for an efficient, successful, and well-functioning government. Without it, government decisions and implementation become considerably more complex (Holum, 2022).

Citizens’ trust in municipal government agencies is essential in countries like Somalia, which still faces conflict and political instability. However, poor governance practices, inadequate service delivery, and pervasive corruption have undermined citizens’ confidence in government institutions. The Heritage Institute for Policy Studies (HIPS) (2021) argued that Somalia had not met critical benchmarks for good governance, such as the rule of law, government performance, public participation, accountability, transparency, and corruption control. Similarly, Sofe and Miruts (2017) argued that the principles of good governance are not practiced in Somalia. The low level of citizen participation in municipal government decisions, the lack of transparency and accountability, and the poor performance of local authority institutions influenced citizens’ trust in local governments. Conflicts and civil war in Somalia have already led to a great deal of mistrust in governmental institutions. However, as Somalia is recovering from political instability and trying to stand on its feet, regaining citizens’ trust has become an essential asset to municipal authorities. Therefore, it is critical to recognize the predictors and mechanisms influencing people’s perceptions of trust in government (Hartanto et al., 2021). Many scholars believe that good governance practices and citizens’ trust are inevitably linked (Jameel et al., 2019; Yousaf et al., 2016).

A plethora of prior research has shown that perceived good governance practices among the citizens enhance trust in local governments (Ab-Rahman et al., 2022). Therefore, adopting good governance principles is the pathway to increasing the citizens’ trust in municipal authorities (Beshi & Kaur, 2020). Furthermore, good governance is necessary for creating and maintaining trust in the government in free democratic communities (Blind, 2007). Although existing research has shown the significant impact of good governance practices on trust, there is a scarcity of literature investigating how good governance practices can impact trust in local authorities in developing countries (Hartanto & Siregar, 2021; Mansoor, 2021). In addition to the imperative of good governance in boosting citizens’ trust in public sector institutions, a recent study highlighted the importance of institutions’ perceived performance in the citizens’ trust in such institutions (Wahyurudhanto, 2022). Similarly, Goldfinch et al. (2022) argued that local government performance remains the important critical antecedent of trust.

Furthermore, to date, to the best of the author’s knowledge and through a search in peer-reviewed databases, no prior studies have modeled the mediating role of the citizens’ perceptions of municipal government performance on the relationship between elements of good governance (perceived public participation, perceived accountability, and perceived transparency) and citizens’ trust in municipal government. Furthermore, the researcher noted that several previous studies examined the relationship between various elements of good governance in individual studies.

For instance, public participation (He & Ma, 2021; Holum, 2022), accountability (Farwell et al., 2019), transparency (Grimmelikhuijsen & Klijn, 2015), and citizens’ trust in government have been examined. Nevertheless, there is a paucity of existing research examining the combined effects of perceived elements of good governance (perceived public participation (PPP), perceived accountability (PAC), and perceived transparency (PTP)) on citizens’ trust in municipal government (CTM) via citizens’ perceptions of municipal government performance (PMP). Therefore, to bridge this literature lacuna, considering the significance of good governance, it is critical to investigate the level of citizens’ trust in municipal government and how to enhance it (Arshad & Khurram, 2020), specifically in Somalia. Therefore, this study is based on good governance principles, which assert that public sector institutions should manage human and non-human resources fairly and sustainably through transparency and accountability (Beshi & Kaur, 2020). This means that the people in charge of a local government must involve the people they serve and be accountable for their decisions and day-to-day actions. They can do this by being transparent and giving people access to information. Furthermore, municipal governments must improve their performance to rebuild citizens’ trust. Hence, rooted in the theory of good governance and examining the perceived elements of good governance, citizens’ perceptions of municipality performance, and citizens’ trust in the municipality, the purpose of this research is to examine the mediating role of citizens’ perceptions of municipal government performance on the relationship between perceived elements of good governance and citizens’ trust in Somali municipalities. Using an online survey of residents of Mogadishu municipality, the largest municipality in Somalia, the researcher used quantitative analysis to examine the relationship between perceived elements of good governance and citizens’ trust, as well as the possible mediating role that citizens’ perceptions of municipal government performance play in that relationship. Therefore, in this paper, the researcher builds a theoretical and empirical model to examine the mediating role associated with perceived elements of good governance outcomes. The remaining sections of the paper discuss the literature review and hypotheses, methods and measures, analysis and results, conclusion and discussion, and limitations and future research directions.

2 Literature review and hypotheses development

2.1 Good governance

The idea of governance is not novel; it has been present since the beginning of human civilization (Singh et al., 2009). To put it in simple terms, governance is the exercise of authority to make decisions and manage the affairs of a country. The concept of governance gained widespread recognition in the late 1980s and early 1990s when the prefix “good” was added to it, resulting in an expanded notion (Mishra & Momin, 2020). In 1989, the World Bank (WB) was the first international donor agency to adopt good governance in its operations (Weiss & Steiner, 2006). The WB, International Monetary Fund (IMF), European Union (EU), and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) all have distinct definitions of the concept and principles of good governance (Van Doeveren, 2011). According to the IMF (1997), good governance means supporting the rule of law, increasing public sector accountability and transparency, improving public sector efficiency, and fighting corruption. Moreover, “good governance is characterized as participatory, transparent, accountable, effective, equitable, and promoting the rule of law” (UNDP, 1997, p. 6). This definition underlines the need to maintain democratic practices, particularly by ensuring all social groups’ participation in democratic decision-making.

However, a common agreement exists on critical principles and the meaning of the abovementioned definitions, such as accountability, transparency, public participation, efficiency and effectiveness, openness, and the rule of law (Van Doeveren, 2011). Yaghi (2008) debated that exercising good governance boosts democracy. Therefore, good governance allows citizens’ voices to be heard when local governments make important decisions and actions that influence their lives. In democratic institutions, good governance describes public administration practices that maximize the citizens’ interests (Keping, 2018). According to Nielsen et al. (2021), public participation, accountability, and transparency are three essential elements of good governance. Hence, the researcher studied the three elements of good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) and how they enhance citizens’ trust in municipal government. Public participation is “active public involvement in decision-making activities in policymaking and physical development toward meeting the needs of the people” (Sonet et al., 2021, p. 10). Public participation refers to the involvement of all stakeholders in decision-making processes and administrative work. This happens when participation channels are easy to find, people participate in activities, and people are involved in decision-making processes (Wang & Wart, 2007). Public participation primarily refers to recognizing citizens’ concerns and demands and acknowledging their interests in the decision-making process (AbouAssi et al., 2013). Accountability is the degree to which an institution and its personnel are answerable to their constituents (i.e., the community they rule and serve) for its operations and outcomes (Rapp-McCall et al., 2022). Transparency is an organization disclosing information that allows third parties to observe and evaluate its internal operations, choices, and performance (Tran & La, 2022). Furthermore, transparency is the openness and genuineness with which bureaucratic information is publicly accessible. Ideally, the policy development process requires full disclosure of the information (Im et al., 2022). Porumbescu (2015) define citizens’ perceptions of government performance as a general measure of how well citizens perceive their government's performance. Bouckaert and Halligan (2011) operationalized public sector performance perception at the micro-, meso-, and macro-levels. At the micro-level, citizens’ perceptions of performance can be judged by how they perceive the performance of the individuals in charge of providing public services, such as police officers and teachers (Porumbescu, 2015). At the meso-level of performance, citizens’ perceptions of performance refer to the opinions about specific public services or the organizations in charge of delivering services, such as the departments or agencies. Citizens’ macro-level performance perceptions are more diffuse because they are based on the collective performance of government agencies and individuals (Porumbescu, 2013). Hence, citizens’ perceptions of the public sector’s performance represent an overall assessment of the sector’s performance. Bouckaert et al. (2002) identified four dimensions for measuring the macro-level of government performance: citizens’ wealth, health, security, and overall happiness. The four dimensions of the macro-level of citizens’ perceptions of government performance were validated by previous studies (Porumbescu, 2013).

Trust is a mental condition characterized by a readiness to take chances based on favorable assumptions about a trustee’s intentions or behavior (Rousseau et al., 1998). Moreover, trust is a crucial aspect of social capital and involves interpersonal and institutional dimensions (Yuan et al., 2022). Equally, trust in government provides citizens the confidence that government officials and representatives will act as intended in the public interest, whether in a specific action or a set of actions (Warner & Fargher, 2022). Similarly, trust in government refers to the people’s trust in government actions to do what is right and just (OECD, 2013). Furthermore, trust in the government means that people have a favorable opinion of their government’s ability, benevolence, and integrity (Grimmelikhuijsen et al., 2013). Trustworthiness has three dimensions: perceived ability, integrity, and the benevolence of another (Mayer et al., 1995). According to Porumbescu (2013), the ability was described as the competence to complete a specific task. Rosen and Jerdee (1977) benevolence refers to the trustor’s belief that they and the trustee have a close relationship and that the trustee prioritizes the trustor’s interests over their own. Integrity, the last dimension of trustworthiness, is the trustor’s belief that the trustee upholds a set of standards that the trustor deems acceptable. This can be seen as perceived value consistency between the trustor and the trustee.

2.2 Public participation in Somali local governments

Democracy strongly emphasizes public participation in political processes (Wang & Wart, 2007). They further noted that public participation in decision-making has many advantages, including improved decision quality, informed citizens, increased legitimacy, a shift in power dynamics, consensus-based solutions, and increased public trust in the government. In the Somali context, the constitution recognizes a three-tiered federal system. Still, the federal government and Federal Member States (FMS) have yet to transfer the power to the local level (HIPS, 2021). This is especially true in Mogadishu municipality, where residents have little influence on city operations. Abdi and Dirie (2017) reported that citizen participation in Mogadishu municipality’s decision-making was minimal and weak. They attributed this to stakeholder distrust, insecurity, limited skills of local authorities, and inadequate community mobilization skills among local government leaders. The federal president appoints the Mogadishu municipality’s mayor and his four deputies in consultation with the clan leaders and members of parliament. This process disregards the provisional federal constitution of Somalia’s emphasis on citizen participation in the elections of local leaders. In addition, the mayor appointed district commissioners who ran administrative units. HIPS (2021) identified barriers to meaningful citizen participation in local governance in Somalia, such as a clan power-sharing system, constitutional ambiguity, unclear political roles, the behavior of political players, and federal and state control. In addition, the provisional federal constitution of Somalia does not define Mogadishu municipality’s status as the nation’s capital city.

In contrast, the traditional Somali governance system, characterized by clan power-sharing, shapes perceived participation in a municipality. Under this system, the mayor of Mogadishu and his four deputies were nominated primarily through clan-based power-sharing arrangements. Consequently, when residents see someone from their clan holding a significant position in the municipality, they likely perceive indirect involvement in its administration. This impression stems from the belief that having a clan member in a significant government position gives them a chance to influence local affairs.

2.3 Theoretical model

The study’s theoretical model was established based on good governance principles, lacunae, and evidence in the existing body of knowledge, especially in Somalia. The study proposed that elements of good governance, such as PPP, PAC, and PTP, improve citizens’ perceptions of the performance of the municipality authority, thus boosting their trust in the municipal government. In addition, the perceptions of municipal government performance have been investigated as a possible mediator between elements of good governance and the citizens’ trust in municipal authority. It is suggested that because of the mediating role of the perceptions of municipal government performance, citizens’ trust in municipal authority is enhanced since they perceive that local administration agencies meet the population’s expectations and satisfy their needs. Farazmand (2004) rightly argued that the governance process is how local governments make policy decisions and carry them out. All actions occur at local levels. Therefore, the local governments must also be accessible to citizens and stakeholders because they are closer. Therefore, local authorities are fundamental, because it is where people can participate and use their democratic rights (Farazmand, 2004). Citizens’ trust in municipal governments can be categorized according to their trust in municipal government officials and institutions. The level of trust citizens have in municipal institutions is determined by their level of trust in the municipal government’s overall system, structure, and processes. In contrast, the trust of municipal government officials refers to the confidence citizens have in those who hold positions of authority within the municipal government. The trust in municipal authorities will probably increase if citizens feel that their municipality is involved in decision-making regarding municipal activities. Similarly, local institutions and officials responsible for their actions and decisions for citizens have gained their trust. Additionally, it is possible to enhance citizens’ trust in local municipal authorities by increasing the transparency of the municipal government’s day-to-day operations and activities. Therefore, this study conceptualized that improving citizens’ perceptions of elements of good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) would create a higher level of PMP, leading to CTM institutions and officials. In line with the literature review and the following subsequent sections, the theoretical model of this present study is provided in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Theoretical framework of the study model

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2.4 Good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) and citizens’ trust

The role of good governance practices in fostering citizens' trust has been a crucial topic in global governance (Jameel et al., 2019). Good governance practices are a fundamental cornerstone for establishing robust systems of justice and politics, making governments transparent, accountable, and participatory. This is crucial in gaining citizens' trust to achieve stability and prosperity in global societies.

Perceived elements of good government positively influence citizens’ trust. Previous studies advocated that elements of good governance are linked to the citizens’ trust in government (Beshi & Kaur, 2020; Mansoor, 2021). Similarly, good governance significantly affects public trust in government (Spiteri & Briguglio, 2018). Also, a recent new study reported that good governance practices positively and significantly impact residents’ trust in government (Ab-Rahman et al., 2022). Public participation as a critical element in good governance enhances citizens’ trust in government (Goldfinch et al., 2022; Hue & Sun, 2022). In this sense, public participation in the budgeting and planning of local government programs fosters citizens’ trust in government.

Furthermore, accountability, a fundamental feature of good governance, is crucial in promoting the public’s trust in municipal administration. Several recent study findings have reported that accountability is essential to enhancing citizens’ trust in local authorities (Hartanto et al., 2021). Similarly, accountability practices impact citizens’ trust in local authorities (Ruslan, 2022; Wahyurudhanto, 2022). Accountability relates to how the public authority allocates resources and makes significant policy decisions and how this information is shared with the public (Mansoor, 2021). Besides, trust in local government is significantly and positively associated with accountability (Spiteri & Briguglio, 2018; Zaini & Kuppusamy, 2017).

In addition, it is considered that transparency, a vital component of good governance practice, has a crucial effect on the citizens’ trust in municipal administration. Transparency is a cornerstone of establishing trust in government institutions (Kettl, 2017). Recent studies found that the perceived level of transparency positively relates to the citizens’ trust in local government (Reznik & Lee, 2021). Additionally, transparency significantly and positively influences citizens’ trust in local government (Mabillard, 2022). Transparent government activities strengthen trust in government (da Cruz et al., 2016; Grimmelikhuijsen et al., 2013). Therefore, the study hypothesizes that:

Hypotheses(1, 2, and 3)

Perceived elements of good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) significantly and positively influence citizens’ trust in municipal government.

2.5 Good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) and citizens’ perceptions of municipal government performance

Good governance practices predict peoples’ perceptions of municipal government performance. A recent study found that elements of good governance significantly and positively affect local government performance (Ab-Rahman et al., 2022). A previous study reported that elements of good governance had a significant and positive effect on government performance. For instance, public participation positively affected the citizens’ trust (He & Ma, 2021). Similarly, accountability, a key element of good governance, has positively and significantly contributed to perceived government performance (Demir et al., 2019). Earlier research discovered that transparency positively and significantly impacted perceived government performance (Porumbescu, 2017).

This study examines explicitly whether the PMP is an underlying mechanism between the (PPP, PAC, PTP) and CTM, and such studies on the PMP and the literature on public administration are limited, and no empirical support exists to date. Hence, the study made the following assumptions to bridge this literature void about the PMP, PPP, PAC, PTP, and CTM.

H(4, 5, and 6)

Perceived elements of good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) significantly and positively influence the perceptions of municipal government performance.

2.6 Perceptions of municipal government performance and citizens’ trust

At the macro-level, citizens’ perceptions of public sector performance represent a more generalized assessment of the sector’s overall performance (Porumbescu, 2017). Citizens’ perceptions of government performance have a significant and positive association with trust in the government (Kim, 2010; Zhai, 2022). In addition, the perceptions of local government performance have positively and significantly impacted public trust in local institutions (Liu & Raine, 2016). Again, government performance is usually an essential factor influencing public trust (Liu & Raine, 2016; Nunkoo et al., 2012). Furthermore, public sector institutions’ performance has directly impacted the increasing and developing public trust (Beeri et al., 2019). Similarly, recent studies reported that citizens’ assessment of government performance was positively related to trust in government (Bian et al., 2021; Naraidoo & Sobhee, 2021). Therefore, local government performance should be given more attention, because they are at the forefront of delivering and providing vital public services on which citizens rely throughout the world. They are frequently the most visible face of the state (Walker & Andrews, 2015). Therefore, the study proposes the following hypothesis.

H7

he citizens’ perceptions of municipal government performance significantly and positively influence citizens’ trust in municipal government.

2.7 Mediating role of citizens’ perceptions of municipal government performance

Mediation models have been widely accepted among scholars in the social sciences (Hamdollah & Baghaei, 2016). The research in mediating effects enables researchers to determine if a relationship between two variables is direct or develops indirectly due to a third (mediating) variable (Shaver, 2005). Specifically, scant research background regarding such essential relationships is shown in the earlier literature review.

This study recognizes the citizens’ perceptions of municipal government performance as a fundamental mechanism in the relationship between elements of good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) and CTM. This study establishes whether citizens’ perceptions of municipal government performance are an underlying mechanism between some aspects of good governance and citizens’ trust in municipal government. Several prior studies have given the empirical and theoretical foundation for the mediation role of perceptions of government performance and citizens’ trust in government (He & Ma, 2021; Porumbescu, 2013). Several earlier studies explored how perceived elements of good governance relate to institutional performance. For instance, Wahyuni et al. (2021) reported that implementing good governance influences institutional performance.

Furthermore, Hue and Sun (2022) reported that public participation positively affects the institution’s performance. Moreover, He and Ma (2021) reported that the perceived performance of government institutions mediates the relationship between public participation and citizens’ trust. Similarly, accountability is positively and significantly associated with the perceived local government performance (Demir et al., 2019). Likewise, Porumbescu (2017) found that transparency positively relates to the perceptions of public sector performance. However, many studies have reported that institutions’ perceptions of government performance influence the citizens’ trust. Goldfinch et al. (2022) reported a positive association between local government performance and citizens’ trust. Similarly, many recent studies reported that institutions’ perceptions of performance are associated positively with the citizens’ trust (Dong & Kübler, 2021). Additionally, a recent study reported that the government’s performance evaluation predicts people’s trust (Bian et al., 2021). Therefore, this study intended to examine whether PMP mediates the relationship between PPP, PAC, PTP, and CTM. There is a paucity of literature concerning the mediatory role of PMP. Therefore, the study proposes that:

H(8, 9, and 10)

The citizens’ perceptions of municipal government performance mediate the relationship between perceived elements of good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) and citizens’ trust in municipal government.

3 Research methodology

3.1 Research design and sample

This study was designed to investigate the mediating role of PMP in the relationship between PPP, PAC, PTP, and CTM from the perspective of post-conflict countries, specifically Somalia. This study examined the proposed model using a cross-sectional quantitative research design. The geographic scope of the study was restricted to residents living in the Mogadishu municipality. Mogadishu is the capital of Somalia. Politically, the city’s administration comprises four main parts (Western, Eastern, Central, and Waliyow Adde). The city is further subdivided into 17 administrative units (districts). The district commissioner manages each district at the district level. The population of Mogadishu is estimated to be approximately three million, although there is no official data to corroborate this.

An online Google form survey was used with hyperlinks created to compile the data. Moreover, all questions were marked as required to ensure that the respondents answered all questions to eliminate the possibility of missing data. According to Shawver et al. (2016), online data collection has been trendy among researchers, as several papers have been published using this method for primary data collection. It has several advantages, including being a cost-effective, efficient, and convenient method for collecting data from a wider audience and providing more accurate and clean data. Furthermore, participants may feel anonymous when responding to online surveys, leading to honest responses (Beling et al., 2011). However, online surveys have several drawbacks, including the inability to control the environment, technological issues, bias, and reliability and validity concerns (Shawver et al., 2016).

This study employed several strategies to mitigate the potential common method bias resulting from reliance on online and self-reported data collected from a single survey. Following Podsakoff et al. (2003), this study used procedural and statistical methods to reduce potential common method bias (CMB). First, the online survey included a cover letter ensuring participants’ confidentiality and anonymity to minimize social desirability bias and to create a comfortable environment. Second, the study used a validated measurement scale to reduce the ambiguity of the measurement items and enhance their clarity. The researcher used English survey items from reputable literature to ensure the survey language was comprehensible to participants. This approach was adopted to mitigate potential problems arising from the translation and retranslation processes.

Furthermore, English is a commonly used and understood language in Somalia’s tertiary education, and most participants had at least undergraduate and graduate degrees. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that respondents fully understood the survey language. In addition, Hartanto et al. (2021), Beshi and Kaur (2020), and Porumbescu (2017) have used English language surveys in various cultural contexts. Finally, segregating exogenous, mediating, and endogenous variables across the survey may reduce CMB by preventing respondents from making inferences about the causal relationships among the constructs. Six hundred questionnaires were distributed using snowball sampling to city residents via Facebook, WhatsApp, and email. The researcher gathered the data with the support of coworkers, friends, and university students, who were briefed on the questionnaire’s objectives and contents. However, only 357 questionnaires were completed, with a response rate of 59.5%. A 30–70% response rate in social science research is typically considered acceptable (De Vaus, 2013). No outliers or missing values were an issue; therefore, complete responses were used. A pilot study was conducted with 30 residents of Mogadishu municipality to ensure that the items were clear and appropriate. The reliability of the items was greater than 0.70, indicating that they were reliable (Hair et al., 2021). Hopefully, the collected data in this study can provide valuable insights into these issues; nonetheless, caution is required when drawing conclusions from non-probability snowball sampling. Therefore, the conclusions should only be considered indications, not conclusive assertions.

The respondents were aged nearly 28 years on average, with 79.8% of the participants being males and 20.2% females. More than 39% of participants came from Mogadishu’s west, approximately 25% from Waliyow Adde, 23% from the east, and only 13% from the central region. In addition, among the study participants, 59.4% had a bachelor’s degree, 37.5% had a master’s degree, 1.1% had a secondary school certificate, and 2% had a doctorate.

3.2 Development of measurement

The variables in the model proposed in this study were established using reliable and valid measures, i.e., they have been used in previous studies by other scholars and have shown good psychometric properties. A five-point Likert scale was used in this study, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The Appendix (Table 5) contains a complete list of survey measurement scales used in this study.

Perceived Public Participation (PPP) was measured using a four-item scale developed by Wang and Van Wart (2007). Perceived Accountability (PAC) was captured by a five-item scale created by (Said et al., 2015). Perceived Transparency (PTP) was measured using a five-item scale adopted from Park and Blenkinsopp (2011). Perceptions of Municipal Government Performance (PMP) were measured using a six-item scale developed by Porumbescu (2017). Citizens’ Trust in Municipal Government (CTM) was measured with a five-item scale developed by Park and Blenkinsopp (2011). The measurement scales for all the constructs showed higher levels of reliability and validity (Table 1).

Table 1 Outer loadings, validity, and reliability
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4 Data analysis and results

The study used SmartPLS4 to analyze the data using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), a variance-based method, and to test the hypothesized model (Ringle et al., 2022). First, using SPSS and SmartPLS 4, the researcher checked for CMB before assessing the measurement and structural models. First, the researcher checked for CMB and found that it did not pose any significant problem. The researcher then analyzed the measurement and structural models of the study.

The decision to use PLS-SEM instead of covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM) was made for several reasons (Sarstedt et al., 2014). First, PLS-SEM is better suited for predictive research because it allows researchers to estimate their models’ predictive power, like this study’s case. Second, PLS-SEM is considered a more suitable statistical technique than CB-SEM for assessing complex models with multiple constructs, including mediators. Third, in contrast to its CB-SEM counterpart, PLS-SEM does not adhere to the assumptions of normality. Finally, the small sample size makes PLS-SEM a better choice than CB-SEM. Previous studies have shown that both SEM techniques yield similar results when the sample size is sufficiently large. However, PLS-SEM may be better than CB-SEM when the sample size is small.

4.1 Common method bias

CMB involves measurement errors arising from methodological issues. A specific example of this bias can occur when all survey items use the same measurement scale (Kock, 2017). Podsakoff et al. (2003) recommended a few sets of statistical remedies to address the problem of CMB. First, the study utilized Harman’s single-factor test using SPSS, the most widely used technique to detect common method bias (Kock et al., 2021). The researcher conducted an unrotated exploratory factor analysis of the 25 items associated with a single latent factor. The average variance accounted for by this single factor was only 43%, below the recommended threshold of 50%. Therefore, the CMB is not a significant problem. Finally, the CMB was evaluated using the full collinearity test (Kock, 2017). The analysis showed that all constructs’ variance inflation factor (VIF) values were lower than the threshold of 3.3. Therefore, CMB is not a threat to the model’s validity.

4.2 Measurement model

The study assessed the validity and reliability of all instruments and constructs (Hair et al., 2021). Outer loadings were calculated to measure the indicator reliability. The composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s alpha (α) were calculated to assess the internal consistency reliability of the constructs (Fig. 2). The convergent validity was evaluated using Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and the discriminant validity was established by applying the heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio (Henseler et al., 2015). All item loadings surpassed the 0.60 threshold, as endorsed by Chin (1988) (Table 1, Fig. 1). All constructs were reliable, as alpha (α) and CR values exceeded the threshold of 0.70 (Hair et al., 2021) (see Table 1). The convergent validity evaluation is the next step, which assesses how well the latent variables converge to account for the variation of its items (Hair et al., 2019). AVE’s values exceeded the 0.50 cut-off (Table 1). In addition, discriminant validity was examined using the heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio (Henseler et al., 2015). Discriminant validity is confirmed, as all values fall below the 0.85 threshold (Table 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Measurement model

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Table 2 Discriminant validity–HTMT criterion
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4.3 Structural model

After ensuring that all measures are reliable and valid, the second step is to test the inner model results (Sarstedt et al., 2015). The researcher used the procedures suggested by Hair et al. (2021) to measure the structural model. The key steps in determining the inner model are coefficient of determination (R2), standardized path coefficients, t-values, the model’s predictive relevance (Q2), and effect size (f2). The structural model was assessed using the bootstrapping procedure with 10,000 sub-samples to verify the predicted relationship among the constructs.

In Table 3, the findings of the study uncovered a positive and significant association of CTM with PPP (β = 0.179, t = 2.946, p = 0.001), PAC (β = 0.300, t = 4.460, p < 0.001), PTP (β = 0.174, t = 3.301, p = 0.001). Also, a positive and significant relationship of PMP has been revealed with PPP (β = 0.348, t = 5.696, p < 0.001), PAC (β = 0.303, t = 4.446, p < 0.001), and PTP (β = 0.158, t = 2.333, p = 0.009). Similarly, PMP had a positive and statistically significant effect on CTM (β = 0.217, t = 3.717, p < 0.001). Hence, (H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, and H7) were supported.

Table 3 Direct and indirect effects
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As revealed in Table 3, the findings supported the indirect hypotheses (H8, H9, and H10). The result showed a positive and indirect impact of PPP (β = 0.076, t = 2.901, p = 0.002), PAC (β = 0.066, t = 2.565, p = 0.006), and PTP (β = 0.034, t = 2.144, p = 0.015) on CTM via the underlying mechanism of PMP.

Furthermore, the results show that PPP, PAC, and PTP explain 54.2% of the variation in the CTM via PMP. However, 49.8% of the change in PMP is explained by PAC, PPP, and PTP (Table 4, Fig. 3). Table 4 depicts that the values of Q2 for the CTM and PMP endogenous constructs exceeded zero (0). Hence, the model has predictive relevance. Finally, the results in Table 4 showed that all exogenous constructs have a small or negligible effect on CTM and PMP.

Table 4 Model’s predictive power
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Fig. 3
figure 3

Structural model

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5 Discussion and conclusion

The study examined the mediating role of perceptions of municipal government performance on the relationship between perceived elements of good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) and CTM. PPP positively and significantly influences CTM. Earlier studies support this (see Goldfinch et al., 2022). This implies that citizens’ participation in municipal government projects and program design and execution is likely to facilitate the implementation of such programs and boost their sustainability. Ultimately, this makes people feel better about how well their local government performs, making them more likely to trust the people in charge of municipal administration. Similarly, PAC positively influences CTM. The result of this study supports prior research findings (see Wahyurudhanto, 2022). The results suggested how crucial it is to recognize perceived accountability as a positive predictor of citizens’ trust in municipal authorities and how valuable it is for local authorities to restore and win over local citizens’ trust in the municipal administration.

Likewise, in line with prior research, PTP positively and significantly influences CTM (see Wahyurudhanto, 2022). This implies that local government authorities get more trust and confidence from the citizenry when they practice transparency in their daily operations and activities. Furthermore, the study revealed a positive and significant relationship between perceived elements of good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) and PMP. These findings are consistent with a recent study, for instance, (see Ab-Rahman et al., 2022). Similarly, this aligns with the prior research that reported that PPP positively and significantly influences PMP (See Hue & Sun, 2022). In terms of PAC, in agreement with prior research, there was a positive and significant influence on PMP (e.g., Demir et al., 2019). In line with Porumbescu’s (2017) research, the study found that PTP positively and significantly influences PMP. Additionally, PMP was positively and significantly related to CTM, supporting earlier research findings (Naraidoo & Sobhee, 2021). Finally, no prior research specifically examined the mediating role of PMP on the relationship between perceived elements of good governance (PPP, PAC, and PTP) and citizens’ trust in municipality. The study uncovered that the PMP partially mediates the relationship between PPP and citizens’ trust in the municipality. This aligns with prior studies (see He & Ma, 2021). Similarly, the study showed that PMP partially mediates the relationship between PAC and citizens’ trust in the municipal authorities. These results support the notion that the influence of PAC on citizens’ trust in municipal authorities is via PMP. Furthermore, the study revealed that PMP partially mediates the relationship between PTP and citizens’ trust in the municipality. These findings corroborate the study’s hypotheses that PTP affects citizens’ trust in municipal government via PMP. The study argues that citizens’ participation in local authorities strengthens their assessment of municipal government performance, leading to a greater degree of citizens’ trust in their municipal government. The possibility of citizen involvement in municipal government institutions appears to improve citizens’ assessments of municipal administration performance, which, in turn, boosts citizens’ trust in the municipality. Similarly, these results validate the notion that the influence of perceived accountability on citizens’ trust in municipal authority is through perceptions of municipal government performance. Furthermore, these findings corroborate the idea that perceived transparency affects citizens’ trust in municipal government via perceptions of municipal government performance. The study makes a case for how crucial citizens’ perceptions of transparency are to how well municipal governments perform and how this, in turn, promotes strong citizens’ trust in governments.

Prior studies highlighted the importance of good governance practices for building trust in government. There is also a strong belief that implementing good governance principles will improve all aspects of society. However, the findings of this study imply that implementing good governance practices is not necessarily associated with higher levels of citizens’ trust unless governments have a high level of performance.

The present study enhances the existing body of literature by exploring three elements of good governance (PPP, PAC, PTP) and their influence on CTM via the mediating role of PMP in post-conflict countries, specifically Somalia. Additionally, it is original research in good governance while considering the three elements of good governance in a single study. Previous research has examined these three elements separately with citizens’ trust; in light of this, the joint framework adds to the body of existing literature. This study’s results validated good governance practices with the PMP and citizens’ trust incorporated into a single conceptual framework. The current study answers the questions from the previous literature about why citizens’ trust in local authorities is diminishing. Finally, the researcher expected that the findings would provide key policy insights to municipal decision-makers and future governance and public administration researchers.

5.1 Limitations and future research direction

Despite its strengths, this study has several limitations. First, the study gathered data from the local citizens of the Mogadishu municipality. Future research could collect data from municipal government officials and citizens to determine how good governance influences perceptions of municipal government performance, leading to a higher level of citizens’ trust in the municipal authorities.

The second limitation is the use of an online, cross-sectional research design. Therefore, future studies should address this limitation using a longitudinal study design. Third, the study’s small sample size limited its findings’ generalizability. Due to time and financial constraints, only 357 respondents (predominantly educated young males) participated in the study, but the sample needed to reflect the diverse population of inhabitants in Mogadishu municipality. Future research should expand the number of participants to better reflect the diverse demographic characteristics of a city's population. This study was conducted in Mogadishu, the capital city of Somalia. Future research should extend this analysis to include other cities in the country. The fourth limitation relates to the use of quantitative data analysis. In the future, researchers could use a mixed method to gain more insight into why citizens trust municipal government.

Fifth, this study found that PMP partially mediated the relationship between the elements of good governance and CTM. This suggests that other mediating mechanisms may exist that better explain the influence of the elements of good governance on public trust in municipal authorities. To determine which mechanism best explains this relationship, future researchers should examine different mediating mechanisms, such as perceived effectiveness, from the perspective of competing theories, such as the principal-agent theory. Finally, future studies can further examine how perceived corruption moderates the relationship between perceptions of municipal government performance and citizens’ trust in municipal government.