Abstract
In this study, TiO2 nanoparticle (TiO2NP)-coated film was produced to protect manuscripts against microorganisms using ecofriendly benign materials. As a result, a simple method was created that uses poultice biofilm made of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and Phytagel plant cell (PGP) loaded with TiO2NPs to preserve manuscripts against microbes in an environmentally responsible way. Three volumes (1, 2, 4 mL) of TiO2NPs were put into a biofilm combination to produce the poultices known as CMC/PGP/TiO2-1, CMC/PGP/TiO2-2, and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3. The synthesized TiO2NPs were nearly spherical in shape, small in size (98 nm), and stable (zeta potential value − 33 mV). The results showed that the unique deposition of TiO2NPs on the biofilm surface gave the produced films loaded with TiO2NPs a rough structure. The highest values of mechanical characteristics were determined to be in CMC/PGP/TiO2-1 with values of 25.4 g, 6.6 MPa, and 11.4%, for tensile strength, elongation at break, and tear strength, respectively. Based on molecular identification, the fungus Aspergillus sydowii and the bacterium Nevskia terrae, with accession numbers MG991624 and AB806800, respectively, were isolated and identified from an antiquated manuscript formed from cellulosic fibers. Before the experiments, the produced cotton paper samples were aged, and then, one group was infected for 6 months by A. sydowii and the second group with N. terrae. Following the preparation of a CMC/PGP biofilm loaded with various volumes of TiO2NPs, poultices were applied to infected cotton paper in order to clean it. The infected cotton paper was placed inside the sandwich-like poultices that were created. The poultice CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 demonstrated potential for preventing the growth of A. sydowii and N. terrae-infected cotton paper, when the fibers were saved, cleaned, and coated with CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 after absorbing the fungus and the bacterium and exhibiting exceptional antimicrobial activities. Finally, the novel biofilms have demonstrated their capacity to lessen microbial contamination of cotton paper. In order to generalize the usage of these poultices, it is also advised that they be produced on a large scale and tested on a variety of organic materials in the future.
Graphical Abstract
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
Introduction
Biodeterioration of historical manuscripts such as paper, photographic parchment, albumin prints, or papyrus or manufactured from organic materials becomes a significant societal and economic issue, once the spores and/or vegetative cells of microorganisms are found on the surface (Sterflinger and Piñar 2013; Ts et al. 2015; Borrego et al. 2018; Kraková et al. 2018; Eldeeb et al. 2022; Afifi et al. 2023; Mansour et al. 2023). Cultural asset protection is severely compromised by the potential for significant biodeterioration caused by some microbial metabolic activities on organic materials, which results in constant microbial deterioration and distortion (Caneva et al. 2008; Kwaśna et al. 2020; Branysova et al. 2022).
The microorganisms that degrade cellulose, create colors, and produce acids also contribute to biofouling, which itself is made up of numerous components including insect feces, in addition to harming aesthetics (Borrego et al. 2008; Guiamet et al. 2011; Di Carlo et al. 2022). Fungi were shown to be involved in the biodeterioration of antique etchings on different paper materials. This was corroborated by the finding that some fluorescence, which is activated by localized moisture accumulation, may originate from sulfate-containing fungus colonies (Zotti et al. 2008). Aspergillus, Cladosporium, and Penicillium-related fungi and proteolytic bacteria have been identified in the materials stored at the Historical Archive of the Museum of La Plata, Argentine, and at the National Archive of the Republic of Cuba (Guiamet et al. 2011).
Preventing biodeterioration and, as a result, protecting cultural heritage objects require accurate identification of the bacteria and fungi that are present. Because they create color and pigment, bacteria and fungi are a very diverse group of microbes, and as a result, their metabolic activities harm cultural artifacts, where fungi are more hardy than bacteria (Branysova et al. 2022). According to a decayed archaeological manuscript from the seventeenth century (1677 A.D.), Bacillus subtilis strain (B3) and Penicillium chrysogenum strain (F9) were found to have the highest levels of cellulolytic activity among the identified bacterial and fungal strains (Fouda et al. 2019). By causing oxidation and hydrolysis, A. sydowii, A. flavus, and P. chrysogenum destroyed albumen prints. These microorganisms can grow on model albumen silver prints, affecting the binder and potentially transferring to the paper fibers (Eldeeb et al. 2022).
Maintaining and preserving antiquities is becoming more challenging due to the increase in the handling and use of various artifacts in unfavorable environmental conditions (Okpalanozie et al. 2018). It is essential to clean and secure the papers before putting them inside the cases to reduce the possibility of microbial growth in the future under adverse environmental conditions or in the event of water hazards. Therefore, a number of conservation techniques were used to save the cultural heritage including certain traditional techniques (Tyagi 2023).
In some libraries, the wooden planks used to support the bundle of manuscripts are constructed of neem wood, which can fend off termites because they are vulnerable to insect assault. A dried leaf from a neem tree was inserted between papers to get rid of the booklice (Patidar and Soni 2016). Additionally, it has been observed that many libraries are implementing modern preservation strategies, such as microfilms, microfiches, and digitization (Idoko and Onwudinjo 2021; Mandal et al. 2023). Furthermore, 2-mM silver nanoparticle (AgNP) was a successful green conservation method for materials containing cellulose to inhibit entire microbial growth on paper models (Fouda et al. 2019).
Biofilm-based natural polymers are eco-friendly materials that can protect manuscripts against the development of microbes. Polymers like polyvinyl alcohol, poly(lactic acid), polypropylene, and poly(glycolic acid) have been used in the production of polymeric membranes, because of their biocompatibility, recyclability, and high mechanical strength (Santacruz et al. 2015). Edible biopolymer films can be produced by combining proteins (such as gelatin, casein, wheat gluten, and zein) and polysaccharides (such as alginate, starch, and chitosan) (Morales-Jiménez et al. 2020; Santacruz et al. 2015).
In the past, cellulosic or clay-based wet poultices were used to remove soluble salts (Ottosen and Christensen 2012; Feijoo et al. 2015). The mechanical properties of paper fibers can be improved by tightening the connections between the cellulose fibers (Graupner et al. 2009; Lu et al. 2014). A variety of additives have been used to enhance the mechanical properties of paper, textile, wood, and packaging. Because of its unique mechanical strength, surface qualities, accessibility, adaptable hydrophilicity, quantity of raw materials, and inexpensive synthesis process, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is the most promising cellulose derivative (Farooq et al. 2020; Seddiqi et al. 2021; Fernández-Santos et al. 2022). The hydrophilic character, good film-forming abilities, high viscosity, and adhesive performance facilitate its application. Biomedical engineering, food, paper, textile, pharmaceutical industries, wastewater treatment, and energy production are a few examples of these sophisticated application sectors (Kukrety et al. 2018; Rahman et al. 2021).
The compatibility of titanium dioxide-based nanoparticles (TiO2NPs) with living cells has been studied in numerous papers. To track how NPs infiltrate living creatures’ cells, the interaction of TiO2NPs and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells was monitored. It was established that the interaction of TiO2NPs with the cell’s plasma membrane was what caused the increased maximal depth of the pits following the exposure of TiO2NPs (Batiuskaite et al. 2022). After incubation at 37 °C, the morphological alterations and stimulation of aggregation and fibrillation of β-amyloid fragment 1–40 (βA) and α-synuclein protein attributed to the interaction of TiO2NPs and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) with amyloid proteins (Slekiene et al. 2022).
On some artifacts, a commercially available derivative form called Phytagel plant cell (PGP) has been applied (Domon Beuret et al. 2014). Its selection was influenced by its adherence to vertical surfaces, ease of removal, and compatibility with the chosen active agents (i.e., microbes). The gelling properties of this material may be observed at low concentrations (0.5 to 5 g/L) and across a wide pH range, in addition to its transparency, which is viewed as an advantage because it makes the treatment easier to observe and track (Domon Beuret et al. 2014). PGP can be used for enhancing the properties of CMC while film formation. As known, PGP is fabricated from a bacterial substrate that is composed of glucuronic acid, rhamnose, and glucose (Jacques et al. 2020). For instance, the bacterium Sphingomonas elodea produces the polysaccharide gellan gum (Wu et al. 2011; Prajapati et al. 2013). Similar to agar, it acts best when applied warmly and, once created, forms a hard gel that can be impregnated with both acidic and basic liquids (Guilminot et al. 2019). Due to the gelling property of PGP plates, it increases the hairiness in plants and controls the mechanical strength (Buer et al. 2000).
TiO2NPs are an inorganic nanoparticle that has been employed in a variety of applications including textiles, polymers, cosmetics, and food packaging and alleviate the heavy metal toxicity (Mallakpour and Jarang 2018; Youssef and El-Sayed 2018; Mohr et al. 2019; Liao et al. 2020; Abutalib and Rajeh 2021; Kumar et al. 2023). As a result, environmentally acceptable methods for producing TiO2NPs on a bigger scale with less toxicity have been developed (Baranwal et al. 2018).
In order to clean or shield manuscripts or other organic materials from contamination, microbial development, or even heavy metals from soil, it is urgently encouraged to adopt unique eco-friendly biofilms (Bradu et al. 2022; Chaturvedi et al. 2006, 2007; Habeche et al. 2023; Misra et al. 2009; Natarajan et al. 2020; Shen et al. 2021). For instance, biofilms composed of surface-attached bacteria embedded in an extracellular polymeric substance matrix demonstrated their effectiveness against Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterococcus faecalis (Weldrick et al. 2019). The promoted biofilm formation from chitosan with increasing adhesion of the microstructured surfaces led to increased antibacterial action (Estevam-Alves et al. 2016).
Herein, the current work was designed to prepare an eco-friendly biofilm comprising two environmental polymers: CMC and PGP. To increase the film efficiency, the prepared TiO2NPs with three volumes were added to the biofilm solutions. CMC/PGP biofilms loaded with the three volumes of TiO2NPs were fully investigated in terms of particle shape, average hydrodynamic size, stability, morphological features, swelling (%), and mechanical properties. The work was extended to evaluate the antimicrobial biofilms for possibly protecting the old manuscripts from microbial growth.
Materials and methods
Chemicals
Titanium isopropoxide (TTIP, 99%) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Co. (USA). Nitric acid was purchased from Merck Co. (Germany). Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) was purchased from Across Co. (Germany). Meanwhile, Phytagel plant cell (PGP) was purchased from B&V Laboratory Chemicals (Italy). Glycerol and epichlorohydrin were purchased from WIN lab Co. (India). All other chemicals were used as received without purification.
Preparation of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2NPs) and the biofilms based on CMC, PGP, and TiO2NPs
The sol–gel method was used to synthesize TiO2NPs by dispersing 7 mL of TTIP in 80 mL of distilled water (DW). Nitric acid was then used to further treat the mixture until the pH reached 1.9. After 36 h on a magnetic stirrer, the solution was aged for 6 h at 40 °C, yielding TiO2NP sol. The suspensions were vacuum-dried at room temperature to produce the powdered TiO2NPs. The powder was then dried at room temperature after being washed three times with DW to get rid of the unreacted components. Subsequently, 0.5 g of the dried TiO2NPs was suspended in 30 mL of DW under vigorous stirring.
To produce the biofilms based on CMC, PGP, and TiO2NPs, a viscous solution of CMC was prepared by dissolving 10 g in 300 mL of DW and keeping the mixture at room temperature under mechanical agitation until the CMC was completely dissolved. Secondly, a PGP solution was made by dissolving 10 g of PGP in 300 mL of DW and stirring magnetically at 70 °C for 30 min.
The two aforementioned solutions were then combined with various volumes of the synthesized TiO2NPs, as shown in Table 1. Mechanical homogenization was used to homogenize the resulting mixtures of CMC, PGP, and TiO2NPs, which also lacked any observable precipitations or phase separations.
Glycerol was added after complete homogeneity to enhance the plasticizer’s properties for the film-forming polymers. Following that, a constant amount of the crosslinking agent epichlorohydrin was added to the aforementioned solutions, which were then mechanically agitated for 20 min. Once the solution bubbles had been removed and it had become clear, the generated solution was ultrasonically processed before being cast into films on 9 cm × 13 cm plates. After that, the plates were then dried in an oven with forced air at 35 °C. The biofilms were placed in a temperature and humidity-controlled chamber (25 °C and 50% RH) for at least 60 h after being removed from the dishes before being put through mechanical testing.
Characterization of the prepared TiO2NPs and the produced biofilms
The particle shape of the produced TiO2NPs was examined using a transmission electron microscope (TEM, JEOL, Japan) at three different magnifications. Diluted TiO2NP solution was applied on carbon-coated copper grids, and the grids were then allowed to air dry. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) was used to examine the average hydrodynamic particle size and particle stability (zeta potential).
The surface structure of the produced films was examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM, TESCAN, Czech Republic) with an accelerating voltage of 20 kV. Meanwhile, the elemental analysis for all prepared films was assessed via energy-dispersive X-ray that connected with field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM-EDX, Quanta FEG 250, Czech Republic).
The produced films were tested for tensile strength (MPa), elongation at break (%), and tear strength (g) using an Instron Universal testing machine no. 4301 (Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics, Designation D638-96) with a 50 mm/min extension rate. The Instron Universal testing machine no. 4301 was used to assess the tear strength of the films. The test was performed in accordance with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D1938). The sample was 120 mm long and 25 mm wide, with a 50 mm incision in the middle of one end.
The prepared biofilms’ swelling qualities were also determined in the following way: the film was cut to a certain size and its original weight was weighed. It was soaked in 30 mL of distilled water for 30 min at room temperature. The wet weight of the swollen biofilm was weighed after it was dried. Immersion and weighing were performed several times until the weight was stable.
X1 is the wet weight of the film after immersion, and X0 is the dry weight of the film before immersion. The studies were carried out at a speed of 50 mm/min.
Culturing and molecular identification of the isolated microorganisms
Cultures from a manuscript found in the storage room at the library of Cairo University, Egypt, were swabbed and taken. Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) (Difco, Inc., Detroit, MI, USA) plates were used to culture the mold found in the swabbed samples. The fungal plates were then incubated at 27 ± 2 °C for 7 days. After that, the obtained fungus was purified and maintained in slant tubes at 4 °C in the fridge. Meanwhile, to isolate the bacterial load cultures, the swapped sample was cultured in nutrient broth (NB) medium at 30 °C for 72 h with shaking at 180 rpm. Then, 1 mL of the incubated broth culture was streaked on nutrient agar plates. The obtained bacterium culture was resuspended in NB, and the resultant bacterial suspension (5 mL) was span down at 6000 × g for 10 min at 4 °C to collect the bacterial pellet which was reserved to further molecular analysis (Tan et al. 2019).
To amplify the target gene or region from the obtained fungus or the bacterium, the reaction temperature is increased to 95 °C and the reaction is incubated for 5 min and then cycles of heating at 95 °C for 30 s, annealing at the specific temperature for each primer set used in Table 2 and extension at 72 °C for 30 s, and the reaction was ended after 7 min at 72 °C. The amplification reaction was performed by Go Taq flexi (Promega, USA, Cat# M8305) and was composed of 5 μL Go Taq buffer (5X), 2 μL (25 mM MgCl2), 2 μL (2.5 mM dNTPs), 2.5 μL (10 pmol primer set), and 1.25 unit Go Taq polymerase (On et al. 2013).
The amplified fragments of the two organisms were purified and subjected to sequence analysis using the Big TriDye sequencing kit (ABI Applied Biosystems) by the facility of Macrogen Co., at Seoul, Korea (Fig. S1 and Fig. S2). The obtained sequences were then deposited in the GenBank portal in order to obtain their accession numbers.
Colonization test
The cotton paper samples were prepared from pure cotton in the Egyptian National Library and Archives. The test samples were cut into small pieces (20 × 20 mm) using the scalpel for the colonization test. The thermal aging was conducted between the temperatures of 80 °C and 65% relative humidity for 240 h during 10 days, which is equivalent to 50 years under normal aging conditions (ISO-5630–31996), in the National Measurements and Calibration Center, Egypt. After that, the produced cotton papers were autoclaved at 121 °C in an oven at 105 °C for 24 h. Sterilized distilled water (10 mL) was added to culture plates containing PDA medium to prepare the spore suspension of the fungus (7 days old), and then, these spores were spread using a camel hairbrush. Then, the infected paper was placed on the glass slide in a sterilized Petri dish. For the bacterium colonization, the cell density was adjusted to the required bacterial density [1 × 108 colony forming units (CFU/mL)] (Chen et al. 2014), where fresh 1 mL of the prepared bacterial suspension was used for coating the cotton paper.
The colonization process was kept in controlled growth chambers for 6 months, and then, the inoculated cotton papers with the microorganisms were evaluated and compared with the standard samples (un-inoculated).
Antimicrobial activity by eco-friendly films
Biofilm setup
The created biofilms with TiO2NPs were first activated by UV light, which was applied using a UV lamp with a working power of 15 W and a wavelength of 364 nm for 10 h. The UV source was 10 cm away from the prepared biofilms loaded with TiO2NPs (El-Hossary et al. 2020).
The infected cotton paper was sandwiched between the prepared biofilm folds to test the prepared biofilms’ antimicrobial activity against the isolated microorganisms (Fig. 1a). Figure 1b displays the visual observations of the cleaning process for cotton paper after being treated with the biofilms. The treated paper was left at room temperature 30 °C beside the window to be directly exposed to natural sunlight for 2 h in March between 8 am and 10 pm to assess field efficiency and 70% RH.
Exposure conditions
The biofilm setup was left at room temperature (30 °C) beside the window to be directly exposed to natural sunlight (the continuous energy source for the activation of TiO2) (Liao et al. 2020; Quiñonez et al. 2020) for 2 h in March between 8 am and 10 pm to assess field efficiency and 70% RH. Tests were undertaken on triplicates.
SEM evaluation
The infected, treated, and standard (control) samples of cotton paper were evaluated using scanning electron microscope analysis (SEM, TESCAN, Czech Republic) at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV.
Statistical analysis
Data of the mechanical properties [tensile strength (MPa), elongation at break (%), and tear strength (g)] and the thickness (mm) and swelling (%) of the prepared films were statistically analyzed using one-way analysis of variance. The Least Significant Difference (LSD) was used to measure the difference between means at a 0.05 level of probability.
Result and discussion
Characterization of TiO2NPs
The particle shape of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2NPs) was investigated using a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The sample was studied at three different magnifications, as shown in Fig. 2a–c, and it was found that the size of TiO2NPs has a fairly distinct form and good distribution. Additionally, a portion of these spherical particles was clustered and turned aggregated particles.
As shown in Fig. 2d, the average hydrodynamic size determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS) indicates that the percentage of generated TiO2NPs is close to 98.81 nm. Additionally, a major peak at − 33.4 mV is seen in the zeta potential of the synthesized TiO2NPs (Fig. 2e), indicating that the TiO2NPs are negatively charged and exhibit excellent stability against agglomeration (Ji et al. 2010). The formation of TiO2NPs with zeta potential exceeding + 30 and − 30 mV demonstrates that TiO2NPs (− 33.4 mV) were effectively prepared (Cakmak et al. 2020).
Surface structure of biofilms
Regarding the surface structure of the produced biofilms, as depicted in Fig. 3, it can be seen that the biofilm based on carboxymethyl cellulose/Phytagel plant cell (CMC/PGP) has a smooth, spotless, and continuous surface without any signs of cracking, the development of porous structures, or the deposition of any visible particles (Fig. 3a, b). The surfaces of the biofilms made from CMC and PGP and mixed with various volumes of TiO2NPs, however, are entirely different. The biofilm (CMC/PGP/TiO2-1) formed with the low concentration of TiO2NPs has a rough structure and impressive deposition for small spherical TiO2NPs, as illustrated in Fig. 3c, d.
The formation of the biofilms CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3 with varied surface appearances is caused by an increase in the volume of TiO2NPs. The film surface was found to have some agglomerates, some of which may be TiO2NPs, as illustrated in Fig. 3e–h. The lack of separation between the TiO2NPs and biofilm-forming polymer phases suggests that all three of these components have a consistent morphology and get along well with one another. The hydrogen bonding interactions and chemical resemblances between the filler and matrix are presumably what caused the homogeneity to be seen.
Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) was used to confirm the components that were used to produce the biofilms. The elemental analysis of CMC/PGP, CMC/PGP/TiO2-1, CMC/PGP/TiO2-2, and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3 is shown in Fig. 4a–d. Carbon and oxygen were the only two elements found in the CMC/PGP biofilm (Fig. 4a). The biofilms made from CMC/PGP/TiO2-1, CMC/PGP/TiO2-2, and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3, however, also include titanium (Ti) in addition to carbon and oxygen (Fig. 4b–d), demonstrating the presence of a TiO2NP-loaded CMC/PGP biofilm.
The percentage weight for each element is displayed in the inset tables. It was noted that compared to the other produced biofilms, the Ti content was higher in CMC/PGP/TiO2-3. The elemental analysis phenomenon confirmed that the two film components and TiO2NPs are compatible.
Mechanical properties of the biofilms
Figure 5 displays the formed biofilms based on CMC/PGP, CMC/PGP/TiO2-1, CMC/PGP/TiO2-2, and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3 in terms of their tensile strength (MPa), elongation at break (%), and tear strength (g). The mechanical properties of the manufactured biofilms are often attributed to the interaction of CMC, PGP, glycerol, and TiO2NPs. The created biofilms’ tensile strengths were discovered to be 5.7, 6.6, 6.3, and 5.4 MPa, respectively.
As evidenced by the two biofilms CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3, the tensile strength of the blends decreased as the volume of TiO2NPs increased. The mechanical properties with the greatest values were found to be in the CMC/PGP/TiO2-1 biofilm (Dash et al. 2019; Fathi et al. 2019; Dong et al. 2021). The tensile strength of the resulting biofilms decreases as the volume of TiO2NPs rises. A good correlation was found between the elongation of the biofilms at breaking (Fig. 5) and the tensile strength result, which was 7.6, 11.4, 6.9, and 6.7%, respectively.
The mechanical properties of the produced films are improved by blending with a small amount of TiO2NPs, which is connected to hydrogen bond interaction in CMC and PGP. The tear strength value (g) was increased by adding a small amount of TiO2NPs, as found in the biofilm CMC/PGP/TiO2-1 (25.4 g). This value decreased while increasing the volume of TiO2NPs in the blended films CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 (18.2 g) and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3 (16.4 g) compared to CMC/PGP (18.6 g). Overall, it was found that there was little difference in the blended biofilms’ values for tensile strength, elongation at break (%), and tear strength.
As shown in Table 3, the results of measurement of biofilm thickness consists of CMC/PGP, CMC/PGP/TiO2-1, CMC/PGP/TiO2-2, and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3 were 0.176, 0.313, 0.213, and 0.333 mm. When put into the mold, homogeneity properties may have contributed to the four prepared films’ inconsistent thickness, as was seen. The total solids in each portion were not equal as a result, and the drying time varied.
The cut films loaded with various volumes of TiO2NPs (CMC/PGP, CMC/PGP/TiO2-1, CMC/PGP/TiO2-2, and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3) were submerged in a Petri dish containing 30 mL of distilled water to test the films’ water resistance. The obtained results (Table 3) showed that the swelling (%) reduces as the proportion of TiO2NP-loaded CMC/PGP biofilm increases. This is because the biofilm absorbs less water. The action of TiO2NPs, which are able to form intermolecular hydrogen bonds and coordination bonds with the hydroxyl groups of biopolymer films, may be responsible for the decrease in swellability (%) by increasing the films’ resistance to water (Hou et al. 2019).
Growth inhibition of microorganisms
Isolated microorganisms
From a manuscript found in the storage room in the library of Cairo University, the fungus Aspergillus sydowii was isolated, identified, and deposited under the accession number MG991624 with exhibited similarity of 98.86% (Fig. S3). Additionally, a novel bacterial strain, designated uncultured bacterium, was isolated and exhibited a similarity of 99.53% to members of other genera in the family Nevskiaceae. Nevskia terrae with accession number AB806800 (Fig. S4) is Gram-negative and strictly aerobic and formed translucent white-colored colonies from the genus of Nevskia. N. terrae was isolated from soil in Korea (Kim et al. 2011).
Growth of A. sydowii on cotton paper
The fungus shown in SEM images (Fig. 6) was highly profuse in the colonized sample (Fig. 6a, b). The growth was typically A. sydowii due to their globose to sub-globose morphology characteristic (Fig. 6c, d). The microstructure of A. sydowii was studied using SEM by high magnification. A. sydowii cells were grown on the surface and were dense porous on the cotton paper after incubation for 6 months with A. sydowii due to their globose to sub-globose morphology characteristic (Soler-Hurtado et al. 2016). Dense mycelium growth and well-developed mass branching adhered to cellulose were observed (Ganesh Kumar et al. 2021). However, with the fungal attack, there was a clear spread of A. sydowii, causing structural changes in the paper.
Growth inhibition of A. sydowii on cotton paper treated with the biofilms
A. sydowii was significantly impacted by the poultice’s CMC/PGP formulation composition (Fig. 7a). The hyphae and spores of A. sydowii were absorbed when the poultice was given to the infected cotton paper, which resulted in the cleansing of the cotton fibers but had an impact on the fibers when seen under a scanning electron microscope, where some cracks were seen (Fig. 7b, c). Because it was wet, the poultice absorbed the fungus growths, which led to the cleaning of the treated samples from the fungal growths. The growth was slowed after 6 months of incubation, and the spore’s appearance and shape changed. With limited conidia and tiny hyphae inhibited between the fibers of A. sydowii, the hyphae were torn to bits and weakened, making the fiber apparent (Fig. 7d).
The cotton fibers infected with A. sydowii and treated with a CMC/PGP/TiO2-1 poultice are shown in Fig. 8. The growth of A. sydowii was extremely slow, and the spore production was inhibited (Fig. 8a, b). A. sydowii’s tiny hyphae that inhibited between the fibers had few conidia, and they were broken to pieces and weakened, which made the fiber visible. Although there were minor cracks in the cotton fibers, the poultice prevented the growth of the fungus (Fig. 8c, d). The fungal growths were absorbed by the poultice that developed on the cotton paper, which allowed the treated samples to be free of the fungal growth.
The fungus’ growth was prevented by the poultice composition of CMC/PGP/TiO2-2, which also demonstrated the removal of the fungus’s growth from the fibers (Fig. 9a, b). It also resulted in the preservation of the fibers by covering them with the material loaded on the poultice (Fig. 9c, d), proving that it is one of the best poultices utilized in terms of controlling the fungus and protecting the fibers. The treated cotton paper was cleaned since the poultice removed the fungus growths.
The fungal germs are propagated on the fibers despite being separated from the conidia (Fig. 10a, b), which are shown to be widely dispersed across and between cotton fibers (Fig. 10b, c). These results suggested that the fungus was only marginally affected by the CMC/PGP/TiO2-3 poultice.
Growth of Nevskia terrae on cotton paper
Nevskia terrae had colonized the cotton paper, according to SEM images (Fig. 11a–d). The walls of the cotton fibers were plainly seen to be eroding and degrading, as depicted in Fig. 11a, b. High magnification revealed the bacterial spores covering the cotton fiber walls (Fig. 11c, d).
Nevskia terrae growth suppression on cotton paper treated with the biofilms
Figure 12a–d displays the CMC/PGP formulation-treated cotton fibers that had no effect on N. terrae growth. Under the SEM, the CMC/PGP formulation had an impact on the cotton fibers, causing some fissures to be seen and deposits of poultice to be discovered on the fibers, which revealed a significant proliferation of N. terrae bacilli.
Figure 13a–d shows the cotton paper that had been infected with N. terrae and treated with CMC/PGP/TiO2-1. Cotton fiber treated with CMC/PGP/TiO2-1 resulted in fiber opening and the appearance of cracks and ruptures (Fig. 13a, b), but it also affected the bacterial cell, resulting in a change in the bacterial cell’s morphology(Fig. 13c, d).
The infected cotton fibers with N. terrae and the CMC/PGP/TiO2-2-treated poultice are shown in Fig. 14a–d. The cells of N. terrae are destroyed, and the bacilli of N. terrae are adsorbed across the fibers (Fig. 14c, d). Furthermore, nearly deposits are not discovered of the poultice on the fibers.
Figure 15a–d displays the N. terrae-infected cotton fibers that were poulticed with CMC/PGP/TiO2-3. It was evident that there are a few tiny gaps in the cotton fiber’s structure, which may be caused by the natural, non-homogeneous coating of fibers during the manufacturing process (Fig. 15c, d).
Based on the aforementioned findings, new natural nanocomposite polymer formulations were created and tested as poultices for cleaning paper from bacterial and fungal contamination. Because of the unique characteristics of TiO2NPs, including antibacterial and photocatalytic performance, it is one of the most extensively investigated materials in the field of antimicrobial activities. TiO2NPs typically exhibit all of the physical effects associated with absorption, reflection, and scattering of light when exposed to light with a bandgap energy of 3.2 eV or greater (Xie and Hung 2019). The extremely reactive hydroxyl radical (OH•), which is created when the holes react with the water in the air, is created as an electron donor. The superoxide ion is formed when oxygen, which continually exists on the surface of the particles, serves as an electron acceptor. Superoxide ions, hydroxyl radicals, and holes are all highly effective oxidants that can be utilized to oxidize and break down organic materials including odor molecules, viruses, and bacteria into water and carbon dioxide (Othman et al. 2014).
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are essential for bioactivity, but the precise and reliable underlying mechanisms for signal processing, signal integration, and other signaling pathways, like NO, are still developing. Redox, oxidative, ion, and hormonal homeostasis are related to NO crosstalk functions through signaling pathway modification of downstream genes (Mariyam et al. 2023). Therefore, the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which have numerous effects on bacterial cells that result in their death (Verdier et al. 2014), is attributed to the antibacterial action of TiO2NPs. Additionally, due to their tiny size, TiO2NPs can penetrate cell walls and membranes, enhancing intracellular oxidative damage. For instance, they can lessen DNA damage, H2O2 accumulation, and Cr(VI) accumulation (Kumar et al. 2023).
Numerous studies that used TiO2NPs in various formulations have shown potential antimicrobial benefits as well as improved the properties of the coated materials (Younis et al. 2023). Incorporating TiO2NPs into polyurethane matrices is a successful method for enhancing both the physicochemical and antimicrobial properties of polyurethanes (Saleemi and Lim 2022). Polypropylene films coated with TiO2NPs inhibited the growth of E. coli (Chawengkijwanich and Hayata 2008). TiO2NPs/chitosan nanocomposites incorporated in the CMC adhesive prevent the yellowness of CMC adhesive and enhanced the antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus and A. niger (Ariafar et al. 2018). CMC/gelatin/TiO2–Ag nanocomposite formulation showed a very important antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus (Pirsa et al. 2020). Coated cotton fabrics with CMC/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/TiO2 nanocomposites and exposed to gamma irradiation showed potent antibacterial activity against E. coli (Khafaga et al. 2016).
These formulations included CMC and PGP, which were combined with TiO2NPs. CMC has been used because of its accessibility, low cost, simple pulping process, and superior film-forming capabilities with a very good bond between papers (Baker 1984; Mazhari Mousavi et al. 2017). It has been reported that the CMC coating could simultaneously improve the mechanical and water vapor barrier properties of paper materials (Basta et al. 2015).
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC)-immobilized AgNPs (CNC@AgNPs) were synthesized and formulations of CMC/CNC@AgNPs used to coat paper surface enhanced mechanical and barrier properties and excellent antibacterial activities against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (He et al. 2021). CMC/polyamideamine epichlorohydrin (PAE) interactions showed good wet and dry tensile strength of PAE-based handsheets of papers (Siqueira et al. 2015). Under both wet and dry conditions, tensile strength of cellulose fiber networks was significantly improved as reinforced with CMC/chitosan complex layer-by-layer (Wu and Farnood 2014). Anionic CMC-formed polyelectrolyte polymer (PEC) complex with cationic antimicrobial-wet strength polymer inhibited the growth of E. coli by destroying its cell membrane and causing the leakage of intracellular components from cells (Qian et al. 2008). The prepared AgNPs/CMC-layered double hydroxide (Ag/CMC-LDH) nanocomposite hydrogels were observed to have potential antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus (Yadollahi et al. 2015). Coating a wrapping paper with the biopolymer, a ternary blend of carbohydrates (alginate, CMC, carrageenan) and grapefruit seed extract, significantly increased tensile properties of the paper and strong antibacterial activity against Listeria monocytogenes and E. coli (Shankar and Rhim 2018). AgNP/CMC sample showed promising antibacterial properties toward E. coli (Basuny et al. 2015).
Mixtures of CuNPs with a consolidant (tetraethyl orthosilicate, methylethoxy polysiloxane, Paraloid B72, tributyltin oxide, or dibutyltin dilaurate) and a water-repellent hold were greatly promised for preventing re-colonization of stone after conservation treatment (Pinna et al. 2012). Microalgae-based biopolymer as a potential bioactive film showed the highest fungal growth inhibition against Fusarium verticillioides (70.2%) and Fusarium sp. (61.4%) at 2.24 mg/mL (Morales-Jiménez et al. 2020). ZnONP/polylactic acid coating layer for packaging application indicates antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus (Zhang et al. 2017). CMC/AgNPs showed to be effective in inhibiting the growth of S. aureus and E. coli (Li et al. 2018).
Paper strength properties can be improved by strength additives such as synthetic and non-biodegradable polymers most of which pose great health and environmental hazards (Bhardwaj et al. 2019). Biopolymer additives in the present work showed to enhance the mechanical properties of the produced poultices. Cationic starch forms a natural affinity with the cellulosic fibers resulting in more fiber–fiber interactions (Fatehi et al. 2010). Chitosan is a biodegradable, non-toxic, antibacterial as well as renewable commodity with potential application as a strength additive in papermaking (Habibie et al. 2016). It consists of basic amino groups due to which it becomes cationic in nature that allows better reaction with cellulosic pulp (Rinaudo 2006; Habibie et al. 2016). Coating of paper sheets with nanocellulose/chitosan formulations enhanced their mechanical and air permeability properties and antibacterial power has been obtained against Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (El-Samahy et al. 2017). TiO2 is a desirable material for preserving CMC films and its treated papers, but its problem is that its restricted reactivity in the UV wavelength limits its use in indoor circumstances (Ariafar et al. 2018).
Finally, the addition of various volumes of TiO2NPs increased the efficiency of the produced natural biopolymers, carboxymethyl cellulose, and Phytagel plant cells. Additionally, covering the fibers with the material loaded on the poultice resulted in the preservation of the fibers, demonstrating that CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 is one of the greatest poultices used in terms of blocking the microbe and protecting the fibers. In addition to being easier to apply, eco-friendly treatments are better at sterilizing microorganisms. The created biofilm membranes could be employed as an alternate, environmentally friendly method of manuscript preservation.
Conclusion
This study prepared biofilms of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and Phytagel pant cell (PGP) loaded with three volumes of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2NPs) and compared them to the control sample (CMC/PGP). The surface structure of the CMC/PGP films changed from smooth to rough as a result of the incorporation of TiO2NPs. The produced films’ morphological features were flawless. The use of TiO2NPs with 1 mL CMC/PGP/TiO2-1 also increased the biofilm’s tensile strength. The produced biofilms’ tensile strength decreased as the volume of TiO2NPs increased (CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3). However, it was shown that adding TiO2NPs at a sufficient volume reduced the produced films’ swelling percentage. However, it was shown that adding TiO2NPs at a sufficient volume reduced the produced films’ swelling percentage. In comparison to CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 and CMC/PGP/TiO2-1, CMC/PGP/TiO2-3 showed more edema. In terms of preventing the growth of A. sydowii and N. terrae while clearing the treated cotton paper of the bacteria, the biofilm poultice CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 showed the best results. Composite films demonstrated impressive antibacterial properties against microbial development and could be employed as a different, environmentally friendly method of manuscript preservation.
Data availability
Data are available in the text of the manuscript.
References
Abutalib MM, Rajeh A (2021) Enhanced structural, electrical, mechanical properties and antibacterial activity of Cs/PEO doped mixed nanoparticles (Ag/TiO2) for food packaging applications. Polym Test 93:107013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2020.107013
Afifi HAM, Mansour MMA, Hassan AGAI, Salem MZM (2023) Biodeterioration effects of three Aspergillus species on stucco supported on a wooden panel modeled from Sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay Mausoleum. Egypt Sci Rep 13:15241. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42028-x
Ariafar AA, Afsharpour M, Samanian K (2018) Use of TiO2/chitosan nanoparticles for enhancing the preservative effects of carboxymethyl cellulose in paper-art-works against biodeterioration. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 131:67–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2017.04.025
Baker CA (1984) Methylcellulose and sodium carboxymethylcellulose: an evaluation for use in paper conservation through accelerated aging. Stud Conserv 29:55–59. https://doi.org/10.1179/sic.1984.29.Supplement-1.55
Baranwal A, Srivastava A, Kumar P, Bajpai VK, Maurya PK, Chandra P (2018) Prospects of nanostructure materials and their composites as antimicrobial agents. Front Microbiol 9:422. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.00422
Basta AH, Khwaldia K, Aloui H, El-Saied H (2015) Enhancing the performance of carboxymethyl cellulose by chitosan in producing barrier coated paper sheets. Nord Pulp Paper Res J 30:617–625. https://doi.org/10.3183/npprj-2015-30-04-p617-625
Basuny M, Ali IO, El-Gawad AA, Bakr MF, Salama TM (2015) A fast green synthesis of Ag nanoparticles in carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) through UV irradiation technique for antibacterial applications. J Solgel Sci Technol 75:530–540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10971-015-3723-3
Batiuskaite D, Bruzaite I, Snitka V, Ramanavicius A (2022) Assessment of TiO2 nanoparticle impact on surface morphology of Chinese hamster ovary cells. Materials 15:4570. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134570
Bhardwaj S, Bhardwaj NK, Negi YS (2019) Cleaner approach for improving the papermaking from agro and hardwood blended pulps using biopolymers. J Clean Prod 213:134–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.143
Borrego S, Pons V, Perdomo I (2008) La contaminación microbiana del aire en dos depósitos del Archivo Nacional de la República de Cuba. Rev CENIC, Cienc Biol 39:63–69
Borrego S, Guiamet P, Vivar I, Battistoni P (2018) Fungi involved in biodeterioration of documents in paper and effect on substrate. Acta Microsc 27:37–44
Bradu P, Biswas A, Nair C, Sreevalsakumar S, Patil M, Kannampuzha S, Mukherjee AG, Wanjari UR, Renu K, Vellingiri B, Gopalakrishnan AV (2022) Recent advances in green technology and Industrial Revolution 4.0 for a sustainable future. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20024-4
Branysova T, Demnerova K, Durovic M, Stiborova H (2022) Microbial biodeterioration of cultural heritage and identification of the active agents over the last two decades. J Cult Herit 55:245–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2022.03.013
Buer CS, Masle J, Wasteneys GO (2000) Growth conditions modulate root-wave phenotypes in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell Physiol 41:1164–1170. https://doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pcd042
Cakmak NK, Said Z, Sundar LS, Ali ZM, Tiwari AK (2020) Preparation, characterization, stability, and thermal conductivity of rGO-Fe3O4-TiO2 hybrid nanofluid: an experimental study. Powder Technol 372:235–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2020.06.012
Caneva G, Nugari MP, Nugari MP, Salvadori O (2008) Plant biology for cultural heritage: biodeterioration and conservation. Getty Publications, Los Angeles
Chaturvedi PK, Seth CS, Misra V (2006) Sorption kinetics and leachability of heavy metal from the contaminated soil amended with immobilizing agent (humus soil and hydroxyapatite). Chemosphere 64:1109–1114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.11.077
Chaturvedi PK, Seth CS, Misra V (2007) Selectivity sequences and sorption capacities of phosphatic clay and humus rich soil towards the heavy metals present in zinc mine tailing. J Hazard Mater 147:698–705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.01.064
Chawengkijwanich C, Hayata Y (2008) Development of TiO2 powder-coated food packaging film and its ability to inactivate Escherichia coli in vitro and in actual tests. Int J Food Microbiol 123:288–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.12.017
Chen Y, Gao X, Chen Y, Qin H, Huang L, Han Q (2014) Inhibitory efficacy of endophytic Bacillus subtilis EDR4 against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum on rapeseed. Biol Control 78:67–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2014.07.012
Dash KK, Ali NA, Das D, Mohanta D (2019) Thorough evaluation of sweet potato starch and lemon-waste pectin based-edible films with nano-titania inclusions for food packaging applications. Int J Biol Macromol 139:449–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.07.193
Di Carlo E, Barresi G, Palla F (2022) Biodeterioration. In: Palla F, Barresi G (eds) Biotechnology and conservation of cultural heritage. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 1–30
Domon Beuret E, Mathys L, Brambilla L, Albini M, Cevey C, Bertholon R, Junier P, Joseph E (2014) Des champignons au service des alliages cuivreux. In: Proceedings of the Cahier n°22—XXVIIIe Journées des restaurateurs en archéologie, Arles, 16–17 October 2014; ARAAFU, Paris, France, October 2015
Dong X, Liang X, Zhou Y, Bao K, Sameen DE, Ahmed S, Dai J, Qin W, Liu Y (2021) Preparation of polylactic acid/TiO2/GO nano-fibrous films and their preservation effect on green peppers. Int J Biol Macromol 177:135–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.02.125
Eldeeb HMA, Ali MF, Mansour MMA, Ali Ahmed MA, Salem MZM (2022) Monitoring the effects of fungi isolated from archival document on model albumen silver prints. Microb Pathog 169:105632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105632
El-Hossary FM, Ghitas A, Abd El-Rahman AM, Ebnalwaled AA, Abdelhamid Shahat M, Fawey MH (2020) Effect of UV-activated TiO2 nanoparticles on the properties and performance of PAni-TiO2 nanocomposite films for solar cell applications. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 956:012015. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/956/1/012015
El-Samahy MA, Mohamed SAA, Abdel Rehim MH, Mohram ME (2017) Synthesis of hybrid paper sheets with enhanced air barrier and antimicrobial properties for food packaging. Carbohydr Polym 168:212–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.03.041
Estevam-Alves R, Ferreira PHD, Coatrini AC, Oliveira ON Jr, Fontana CR, Mendonca CR (2016) Femtosecond laser patterning of the biopolymer chitosan for biofilm formation. International Int J Mol Sci 17:1243. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17081243
Farooq A, Patoary MK, Zhang M, Mussana H, Li M, Naeem MA, Mushtaq M, Farooq A, Liu L (2020) Cellulose from sources to nanocellulose and an overview of synthesis and properties of nanocellulose/zinc oxide nanocomposite materials. Int J Biol Macromol 154:1050–1073
Fatehi P, McArthur T, Xiao H, Ni Y (2010) Improving the strength of old corrugated carton pulp (OCC) using a dry strength additive. Appita : Technol, Innov, Manuf, Environ 63:364–369. https://doi.org/10.3316/informit.431484697040158
Fathi N, Almasi H, Pirouzifard MK (2019) Sesame protein isolate based bionanocomposite films incorporated with TiO2 nanoparticles: study on morphological, physical and photocatalytic properties. Polym Test 77:105919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2019.105919
Feijoo J, Ottosen LM, Pozo-Antonio JS (2015) Influence of the properties of granite and sandstone in the desalination process by electrokinetic technique. Electrochim Acta 181:280–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.06.006
Fernández-Santos J, Valls C, Cusola O, Roncero MB (2022) Composites of cellulose nanocrystals in combination with either cellulose nanofibril or carboxymethylcellulose as functional packaging films. Int J Biol Macromol 211:218–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.05.049
Fouda A, Abdel-Maksoud G, Abdel-Rahman MA, Salem SS, Hassan SE-D, El-Sadany MA-H (2019) Eco-friendly approach utilizing green synthesized nanoparticles for paper conservation against microbes involved in biodeterioration of archaeological manuscript. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 142:160–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2019.05.012
Ganesh Kumar A, Manisha D, Sujitha K, Magesh Peter D, Kirubagaran R, Dharani G (2021) Genome sequence analysis of deep sea Aspergillus sydowii BOBA1 and effect of high pressure on biodegradation of spent engine oil. Sci Rep 11:9347. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-88525-9
Graupner N, Herrmann AS, Müssig J (2009) Natural and man-made cellulose fibre-reinforced poly(lactic acid) (PLA) composites: an overview about mechanical characteristics and application areas. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 40:810–821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.04.003
Guiamet P, Borrego S, Lavin P, Perdomo I, Saravia SGd (2011) Biofouling and biodeterioration in materials stored at the Historical Archive of the Museum of La Plata, Argentine and at the National Archive of the Republic of Cuba. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 85:229–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.02.031
Guilminot E, Gomez A, Raimon A, Leroux M (2019) Use of gels for the treatment of metals. In: Metal 2019 Proceedings of the Interim Meeting of the ICOM-CC Metals Working Group September 2–6, 2019, Neuchâtel, Switzerland, p 473
Habeche F, Boukoussa B, Issam I, Mokhtar A, Lu X, Iqbal J, Hacini S, Hachemaoui M, Bengueddach A, Hamacha R (2023) Catalytic reduction of organic pollutants, antibacterial and antifungal activities of AgNPs@CuO nanoparticles–loaded mesoporous silica. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:30855–30873. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24317-6
Habibie S, Hamzah M, Anggaravidya M, Kalembang E (2016) The effect of chitosan on physical and mechanical properties of paper. J Chem Eng Mater Sci 7:1–10. https://doi.org/10.5897/JCEMS2015.0235
He Y, Li H, Fei X, Peng L (2021) Carboxymethyl cellulose/cellulose nanocrystals immobilized silver nanoparticles as an effective coating to improve barrier and antibacterial properties of paper for food packaging applications. Carbohydr Polym 252:117156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117156
Hou X, Xue Z, Liu J, Yan M, Xia Y, Ma Z (2019) Characterization and property investigation of novel eco-friendly agar/carrageenan/TiO2 nanocomposite films. J Appl Polym Sci 136:47113. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.47113
Idoko FA, Onwudinjo BDOT (2021) Measures adopted by library personnel for preservation of library’s information resources in academic libraries in Delta State. Int J Appl Technol Lib Inf Manag 7:52–62
ISO-5630–3 (1996) Paper and board — accelerated ageing — part 3: moist heat treatment at 80 degrees C and 65 % relative humidity
Jacques CN, Hulbert AK, Westenskow S, Neff MM (2020) Production location of the gelling agent Phytagel has a significant impact on Arabidopsis thaliana seedling phenotypic analysis. PLoS ONE 15:e0228515. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228515
Ji Z, Jin X, George S, Xia T, Meng H, Wang X, Suarez E, Zhang H, Hoek EMV, Godwin H, Nel AE, Zink JI (2010) Dispersion and stability optimization of TiO2 nanoparticles in cell culture media. Environ Sci Technol 44:7309–7314. https://doi.org/10.1021/es100417s
Khafaga MR, Ali HE, El-Naggar AWM (2016) Antimicrobial finishing of cotton fabrics based on gamma irradiated carboxymethyl cellulose/poly(vinyl alcohol)/TiO2 nanocomposites. J Text Inst 107:766–773. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405000.2015.1061762
Kim SJ, Weon HY, Kim YS, Park IC, Son JA, Kwon SW (2011) Nevskia terrae sp. nov., isolated from soil. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 61:1226–1229. https://doi.org/10.1099/ijs.0.021238-0
Kraková L, Šoltys K, Otlewska A, Pietrzak K, Purkrtová S, Savická D, Puškárová A, Bučková M, Szemes T, Budiš J, Demnerová K, Gutarowska B, Pangallo D (2018) Comparison of methods for identification of microbial communities in book collections: culture-dependent (sequencing and MALDI-TOF MS) and culture-independent (Illumina MiSeq). Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 131:51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2017.02.015
Kukrety A, Singh RK, Singh P, Ray SS (2018) Comprehension on the synthesis of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) utilizing various cellulose rich waste biomass resources. Waste Biomass Valorization 9:1587–1595. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-017-9903-3
Kumar D, Dhankher OP, Tripathi RD, Seth CS (2023) Titanium dioxide nanoparticles potentially regulate the mechanism(s) for photosynthetic attributes, genotoxicity, antioxidants defense machinery, and phytochelatins synthesis in relation to hexavalent chromium toxicity in Helianthus annuus L. J Hazard Mater 454:131418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131418
Kwaśna H, Karbowska-Berent J, Behnke-Borowczyk J (2020) Effect of fungi on the destruction of historical parchment and paper documents. Pol J Environ Stud 29:2679–2695. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/111236
Li G, Liu L, Sun Y, Liu H (2018) Ecofriendly synthesis of silver–carboxy methyl cellulose nanocomposites and their antibacterial activity. J Clust Sci 29:1193–1199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10876-018-1426-y
Liao C, Li Y, Tjong SC (2020) Visible-light active titanium dioxide nanomaterials with bactericidal properties. Nanomaterials 10:124. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10010124
Lu T, Liu S, Jiang M, Xu X, Wang Y, Wang Z, Gou J, Hui D, Zhou Z (2014) Effects of modifications of bamboo cellulose fibers on the improved mechanical properties of cellulose reinforced poly(lactic acid) composites. Compos b: Eng 62:191–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.02.030
Mallakpour S, Jarang N (2018) Production of bionanocomposites based on poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) using modified TiO2 nanoparticles with citric acid and ascorbic acid and study of their physicochemical properties. Polym Bull 75:1441–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-017-2100-5
Mandal DJ, Deborah H, Pedersen M (2023) Subjective quality evaluation of alternative imaging techniques for microfiche digitization. J Cult Herit 63:81–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2023.07.014
Mansour MMA, Mohamed WA, El-Settawy AAA, Böhm M, Salem MZM, Farahat MGS (2023) Long-term fungal inoculation of Ficus sycomorus and Tectona grandis woods with Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium chrysogenum. Sci Rep 13:10453. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-37479-1
Mariyam S, Bhardwaj R, Khan NA, Sahi SV, Seth CS (2023) Review on nitric oxide at the forefront of rapid systemic signaling in mitigation of salinity stress in plants: crosstalk with calcium and hydrogen peroxide. Plant Sci 336:111835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2023.111835
Mazhari Mousavi SM, Afra E, Tajvidi M, Bousfield DW, Dehghani-Firouzabadi M (2017) Cellulose nanofiber/carboxymethyl cellulose blends as an efficient coating to improve the structure and barrier properties of paperboard. Cellulose 24:3001–3014. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-017-1299-5
Misra V, Tiwari A, Shukla B, Seth CS (2009) Effects of soil amendments on the bioavailability of heavy metals from zinc mine tailings. Environ Monit Assess 155:467–475. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0449-5
Mohr LC, Capelezzo AP, Baretta CRDM, Martins MAPM, Fiori MA, Mello JMM (2019) Titanium dioxide nanoparticles applied as ultraviolet radiation blocker in the polylactic acid bidegradable polymer. Polym Test 77:105867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2019.04.014
Morales-Jiménez M, Gouveia L, Yáñez-Fernández J, Castro-Muñoz R, Barragán-Huerta BE (2020) Production, preparation and characterization of microalgae-based biopolymer as a potential bioactive film. Coatings 10:120. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10020120
Natarajan V, Karunanidhi M, Raja B (2020) A critical review on radioactive waste management through biological techniques. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:29812–29823. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08404-0
Okpalanozie OE, Adebusoye SA, Troiano F, Cattò C, Ilori MO, Cappitelli F (2018) Assessment of indoor air environment of a Nigerian museum library and its biodeteriorated books using culture-dependent and –independent techniques. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 132:139–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2018.03.003
On SL, Brandt SM, Cornelius AJ, Fusco V, Quero GM, Maćkiw E, Houf K, Bilbao A, Díaz A, Benejat L (2013) PCR revisited: a case for revalidation of PCR assays for microorganisms using identification of Campylobacter species as an exemplar. Qual Assur Saf Crops Foods 5:49–62. https://doi.org/10.3920/QAS2012.0158
Othman SH, Abd Salam NR, Zainal N, Kadir Basha R, Talib RA (2014) Antimicrobial activity of TiO2 nanoparticle-coated film for potential food packaging applications. Int J Photoenergy 2014:945930. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/945930
Ottosen LM, Christensen IV (2012) Electrokinetic desalination of sandstones for NaCl removal—test of different clay poultices at the electrodes. Electrochim Acta 86:192–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2012.06.005
Patidar D, Soni A (2016) Indigenous material of preserving manuscripts in library. Int Int J Res Lib Sci 2:183–187
Pinna D, Salvadori B, Galeotti M (2012) Monitoring the performance of innovative and traditional biocides mixed with consolidants and water-repellents for the prevention of biological growth on stone. Sci Total Environ 423:132–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.02.012
Pirsa S, Farshchi E, Roufegarinejad L (2020) Antioxidant/antimicrobial film based on carboxymethyl cellulose/gelatin/TiO2–Ag nano-composite. J Polym Environ 28:3154–3163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-020-01846-0
Prajapati VD, Jani GK, Zala BS, Khutliwala TA (2013) An insight into the emerging exopolysaccharide gellan gum as a novel polymer. Carbohydr Polym 93:670–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.01.030
Qian L, Guan Y, He B, Xiao H (2008) Synergy of wet strength and antimicrobial activity of cellulose paper induced by a novel polymer complex. Mater Lett 62:3610–3612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2008.04.010
Quiñonez EFM, Morales JET, Mina MGC (2020) Photochemical treatment of blue-indigo using a TiO2-sunlight system in heterogeneous conditions. Chem Proc 2:19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ECCS2020-07526
Rahman MS, Hasan MS, Nitai AS, Nam S, Karmakar AK, Ahsan MS, Shiddiky MJ, Ahmed MB (2021) Recent Developments of Carboxymethyl Cellulose Polymers 13:1345. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13081345
Rinaudo M (2006) Chitin and chitosan: properties and applications. Prog Polym Sci 31:603–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2006.06.001
Saleemi MA, Lim V (2022) Overview of antimicrobial polyurethane-based nanocomposite materials and associated signalling pathways. Eur Polym J 167:111087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2022.111087
Santacruz S, Rivadeneira C, Castro M (2015) Edible films based on starch and chitosan. Effect of starch source and concentration, plasticizer, surfactant’s hydrophobic tail and mechanical treatment. Food Hydrocoll 49:89–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.03.019
Seddiqi H, Oliaei E, Honarkar H, Jin J, Geonzon LC, Bacabac RG, Klein-Nulend J (2021) Cellulose and its derivatives: towards biomedical applications. Cellulose 28:1893–1931. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-03674-w
Shankar S, Rhim J-W (2018) Antimicrobial wrapping paper coated with a ternary blend of carbohydrates (alginate, carboxymethyl cellulose, carrageenan) and grapefruit seed extract. Carbohydr Polym 196:92–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.04.128
Shen Y, Jiang B, Xing Y (2021) Recent advances in the application of magnetic Fe3O4 nanomaterials for the removal of emerging contaminants. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:7599–7620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11877-8
Siqueira EJ, Salon M-CB, Belgacem MN, Mauret E (2015) Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) as a model compound of cellulose fibers and polyamideamine epichlorohydrin (PAE)–CMC interactions as a model of PAE–fibers interactions of PAE-based wet strength papers. J Appl Polym Sci 132:42144. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.42144
Slekiene N, Snitka V, Bruzaite I, Ramanavicius A (2022) Influence of TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles on α-synuclein and β-amyloid aggregation and formation of protein fibrils. Materials 15:7664. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217664
Soler-Hurtado MM, Sandoval-Sierra JV, Machordom A, Diéguez-Uribeondo J (2016) Aspergillus sydowii and other potential fungal pathogens in gorgonian octocorals of the Ecuadorian Pacific. PLoS One 11:e0165992. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165992
Sterflinger K, Piñar G (2013) Microbial deterioration of cultural heritage and works of art — tilting at windmills? Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97:9637–9646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-013-5283-1
Tan F, She P, Zhou L, Liu Y, Chen L, Luo Z, Wu Y (2019) Bactericidal and anti-biofilm activity of the retinoid compound CD437 against Enterococcus faecalis. Front Microbiol 10:2301. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.02301
Ts I-I, Bachvarova D, Doychinov A, Etem S, Jordanova K, Dimitrova M, Ivanov R, Enchev D (2015) Study of biofouling in books stored at the archive of the library of Shumen University. Eur J Biology Med Sci Res 3:17–23
Tyagi S (2023) Preservation and conservation of indigenous manuscripts. IFLA J 49:143–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/03400352221103899
Verdier T, Coutand M, Bertron A, Roques C (2014) Antibacterial activity of TiO2 photocatalyst alone or in coatings on E. coli: the influence of methodological aspects. Coatings 4:670–686. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings4030670
Weldrick PJ, Hardman MJ, Paunov VN (2019) Enhanced clearing of wound-related pathogenic bacterial biofilms using protease-functionalized antibiotic nanocarriers. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 11:43902–43919. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b16119
Wu T, Farnood R (2014) Cellulose fibre networks reinforced with carboxymethyl cellulose/chitosan complex layer-by-layer. Carbohydr Polym 114:500–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.08.053
Wu XC, Chen YM, Li YD, Li O, Zhu L, Qian CD, Tao XL, Teng Y (2011) Constitutive expression of Vitreoscilla haemoglobin in Sphingomonas elodea to improve gellan gum production. J Appl Microbiol 110:422–430. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2010.04896.x
Xie J, Hung Y-C (2019) Methodology to evaluate the antimicrobial effectiveness of UV-activated TiO2 nanoparticle-embedded cellulose acetate film. Food Control 106:106690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.06.016
Yadollahi M, Namazi H, Aghazadeh M (2015) Antibacterial carboxymethyl cellulose/Ag nanocomposite hydrogels cross-linked with layered double hydroxides. Int J Biol Macromol 79:269–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.05.002
Younis AB, Milosavljevic V, Fialova T, Smerkova K, Michalkova H, Svec P, Antal P, Kopel P, Adam V, Zurek L, Dolezelikova K (2023) Synthesis and characterization of TiO2 nanoparticles combined with geraniol and their synergistic antibacterial activity. BMC Microbiol 23:207. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-023-02955-1
Youssef AM, El-Sayed SM (2018) Bionanocomposites materials for food packaging applications: concepts and future outlook. Carbohydr Polym 193:19–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.03.088
Zhang H, Hortal M, Jordá-Beneyto M, Rosa E, Lara-Lledo M, Lorente I (2017) ZnO-PLA nanocomposite coated paper for antimicrobial packaging application. LWT 78:250–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2016.12.024
Zotti M, Ferroni A, Calvini P (2008) Microfungal biodeterioration of historic paper: preliminary FTIR and microbiological analyses. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 62:186–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2008.01.005
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Mehrez E. El-Naggar (Textile Research Division, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt) for his tremendous work in identifying and characterizing the formulation of nanogels. We really appreciate Dr. Said I. Behiry (Agricultural Botany Department, Faculty of Agriculture (Saba Basha), Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt), for the assistance in microorganisms’ identification.
Funding
Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
MMAM and MZMS have equal contribution in methodology, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, and writing—review and editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: George Z. Kyzas
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Highlights
• Novel poultices as eco-friendly film-based cleaning agents for contaminated cotton paper.
• Phytagel plant cell (PGP) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) were combined with various volumes of TiO2NP.
• Aspergillus sydowii and Nevskia terrae had molecular identification.
• The developed formula CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 displayed impressive antimicrobial properties.
• The highest values of mechanical characteristics were determined to be in CMC/PGP/TiO2-1.
Novelty statement
Novel formulations of natural nanocomposite polymers were produced and evaluated as poultices for paper cleaning from microbial contamination. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and Phytagel plant cell (PGP) were blended with TiO2 nanoparticles (TiO2NPs). With the highest cleaning of the infected cotton paper, the formulation CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 under a natural environment showed the best results.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Mansour, M.M.A., Salem, M.Z.M. Poultices as biofilms of titanium dioxide nanoparticles/carboxymethyl cellulose/Phytagel for cleaning of infected cotton paper by Aspergillus sydowii and Nevskia terrae. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 114625–114645 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30353-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30353-7