Abstract
Deicing reagents are priority soil pollutants in urban ecosystems. Sodium chloride is one of the priority deicing reagents. Sodium chloride is limiting the spread of lawn grass. We first showed the possibility of using environmental biotechnology in urban greening to obtain lawn grasses tolerant of sodium chloride. We have developed a cell selection technology to obtain salt-tolerant lawn grasses. A cell selection scheme with 1% sodium chloride was used. Most of the tested regenerants were more tolerant to NaCl than original plants. The descendants of the studied regenerants demonstrated the preservation of salt resistance. Most of the descendants of the regenerants Agrostis stolonifera retained high decorative qualities under salinity conditions. The tolerance remained in the next five generations. The descendants of the most salt-tolerant clones Agrostis stolonifera demonstrated resistance to 1% sodium chloride concentration in soil. These plants can serve as the basis for the creation of new salt-tolerant varieties.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
Introduction
Salinization affects ecosystem functioning worldwide (Niedrist et al. 2021).
Deicing reagents are priority soil pollutants in urban ecosystems. Deicing reagents are important to ensure traffic capacity in the winter (Glagolev et al. 2018). Chloride pollution of roads can be observed due to deicing reagents (Clarke et al. 2009).
In the spring, soil salinity can reach a high level of up to 1% (Nikiforova et al. 2014). Application of deicing reagents has a negative impact on roadside vegetation (Gałuszka et al. 2011; Willmert et al. 2018). Fewer plants grow to surround the roads because of the effects of deicing reagents (Asensio et al. 2017).
Sodium chloride affects plant development including germination and vegetative growth (Gladkov and Gladkova 2021a). Deicing salt contamination reduces urban tree performance in structural soil cells (Ordóñez-Barona et al. 2018). Deicing reagents were a significant factor for roadside forest mortality (Fan et al. 2014). The accumulation of Na + and Cl- ions in conifer needles is confirmed. Norway spruce has higher sensitivity to salinity than Scots pine (Zítkova et al. 2021). Sodium chloride is more toxic than calcium chloride (Gladkov et al. 2014). The silver maple response to salt stress depended on salt type and dose-calcium chloride was less toxic than sodium chloride (Patykowski et al. 2018).
Cell selection is used in agriculture. Plant tissue culture techniques are used by breeders to generate new varieties of crops (Gai et al. 2011). An in vitro selection protocol for obtaining salt-tolerant plants has been developed (He et al. 2009). Cell lines able to grow on media containing NaCl were established from potato callus cultures (Queirós et al. 2007).
In vitro regenerants were grown with the addition of NaCl (Rout et al. 2008).
In vitro selection of Medicago sativa L. varieties on salt-containing media allowed us to obtain clones with increased salinity tolerance (Campanelli et al. 2013).
Attempts have been made to screen potato using tissue culture technology to select salt-tolerant cultivars (Sudhersan et al. 2012). Cell selection increases plant resistance to adverse environmental factors (Gladkov et al. 2014, 2021 Gladkov and Gladkova 2020). From the point of view of ecology, the plants obtained using this method are not dangerous.
This method has not been used to produce urban plants resistant to sodium chloride.
Lawn grasses are important in urban greening. Agrostis stolonifera is one of the most common lawn grasses. Sodium chloride is limiting the spread of lawn grasses.
The objective of this research was to increase the resistance of lawn grass to deicing reagents. Therefore, we obtained regenerants of Agrostis stolonifera to test the sodium chloride tolerance of a plant’s next generations. Previously, the effect of sodium chloride on calli of Agrostis stolonifera was evaluated (Gladkov et al. 2014).
Materials and methods
Plants
Agrostis stolonifera L. is a perennial grass species in the family Poaceae. The advantage of Agrostis stolonifera is that it does not need to be cut often; it withstands shadowing and is relatively resistant to gases.
Callus induction and culture
Callus of Agrostis stolonifera was obtained on Murashige-Skoog (MS) modified medium (Gladkov et al. 2014; Gladkov and Gladkova 2020).
Selection of NaCl-resistant plants
To select tolerant clones, Agrostis stolonifera callus was cultivated on modified MS medium supplemented with 1 mg/l 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 1% NaCl. Thereafter, calluses were cultivated on modified MS mediums with 1% NaCl for induction of shoots and roots.
Regenerants
The tolerance of the obtained regenerants was evaluated in soil and water solutions. Each regenerant was assigned a number. The descendants of 10 regenerants were analyzed.
Results and discussion
We used sodium chloride as a selective agent for the production of salt-tolerant plants. NaCl can simulate not only salt but also osmotic stress.
Lawn grasses are sensitive to sodium chloride (Mastalerczuk et al. 2019). Plant growth is affected by saline soils (Roy and Tester 2013). For example, there is a decrease in shoot growth and decorative qualities of lawn grasses (Gladkov et al. 2014). However, this environmental problem has not been resolved. Cell selection has not previously been used to produce lawn grasses that are resistant to deicing reagents.
We have developed for the first time an ecological biotechnology to obtain salt-tolerant lawn grass plants (Fig. 1). We used a cell selection scheme with 1% sodium chloride. Sodium chloride was used at all stages of cultivation, regeneration, and rooting.
Agrostis stolonifera plants are sensitive to 1% sodium chloride (Gladkov et al. 2014; Gladkov and Gladkova 2021b). This technology has been the most effective. The survival rates of plants in the soil were higher compared to those in more severe conditions (Gladkov et al. 2014).
We evaluated the resistance of regenerants to sodium chloride. Regenerants were resistant to sodium chloride. The salt tolerance of the obtained regenerants can be determined by various mechanisms. Salt tolerance is complex and mostly dependent on morphological, physiological (high efficiency in water use, reduced transpiration, osmotic adjustments, etc.), biochemical interactions, and genetic mechanisms (Kashyap et al. 2021). Genes that could increase salt resistance fall into functional groups: that control salt uptake and transport; those that have an osmotic or protective function; and those that could make a plant grow more quickly with salinity (Munns 2005).
The maintenance of osmotic pressure by the accumulation of compatible osmoprotectant molecules (glycine betaine, proline, sugars, and sugar alcohols) in the cell is vital for salt tolerance (Kahraman et al. 2019). Polyamines are able to enhance tolerance to salinity stress (Minocha et al. 2014). Exogenous spermidine can efficiently counteract the adverse effect of low and moderate salt stress. This has been shown for seedlings of G. gandavensis (Qian et al. 2021).
Most regenerants demonstrated increased resistance to 1% NaCl. The descendants of the studied regenerants demonstrated the preservation of salt resistance in soil conditions (Table 1, Figure 2). Salt stress leads to induced leaf yellowing (Yuan et al. 2019). Thus, yellowing of the leaves should not be observed in plants resistant to sodium chloride.
Most of the descendants of the regenerants Agrostis stolonifera retained high decorative qualities. No yellowing of the leaves was observed in most of the regenerants.
The seeds of the third and fourth generations of the regenerants were tested for their resistance to sodium chloride in water solutions (Table 2). They have demonstrated increased resistance to 1% NaCl. The mechanisms of salt tolerance of different regenerants may differ. Possibly, an important component of plant salt tolerance is the prevention of accumulation of Na + and Cl- in leaf tissues (Munns and Tester 2008; Ayaz et al. 2021) by sequestration within the cell or by excluding out of the cell (Munns and Tester 2008).
We evaluated the resistance to sodium chloride of the descendants of five generations of one regenerant (clone “Olga”) in water solution (Fig. 3). The resistance to sodium chloride remained in the next five generations.
Therefore, cell selection can be used to create salt-tolerant lawns. For the first time, it has been shown that cell selection can be used in urban greening to increase resistance to deicing reagents.
Lawn grass cultivars have different sensitivities to salinity (Zhang et al. 2013). Therefore, the use of cell selection will be appropriate for the most ornamental cultivars of lawn grasses.
Conclusion
The high sensitivity of plants to deicing reagents is one of the environmental problems of urban greening. Сell selection was not used to obtain salt-tolerant lawn grasses.
Studies were carried out to assess the resistance to sodium chloride of varieties and ecotypes of lawn grasses (Zamin et al. 2019).
Halophytic plants have been proposed as lawn grass (Zamin et al. 2020).
Long-term solutions to the salinity problem required development of improved salinity-tolerant turfgrasses (Marcum 2014).
We propose to use cell selection to solve this environmental problem.
We have shown that cell selection can increase the resistance of lawn grasses to sodium chloride.
The analysis of several generations of regenerants showed that most of them had increased resistance to deicing reagents. The descendants of the most salt-tolerant clones, Agrostis stolonifera, demonstrated resistance to 1% sodium chloride in soil. These plants can serve as the basis for the creation of new varieties that are resistant to deicing reagents. Assessment of the resistance of the resulting plants to other environmental factors is a potential area for future research.
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
References
Asensio E, Ferreira VJ, Gil G, García-Armingol T, López-Sabirón AM, Ferreira G (2017) Accumulation of de-icing salt and leaching in Spanish soils surrounding roadways. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14(12):1498. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14121498
Ayaz M, Varol N, Yolcu S, Pelvan A, Kaya Ü, Aydoğdu E, Bor M, Özdemir F, Türkan İ (2021) Three (Turkish) olive cultivars display contrasting salt stress-coping mechanisms under high salinity. Trees. 35:1283–1298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-021-02115-w
Campanelli A, Ruta C, Morone-Fortunato I, Mastro G (2013) Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) clones tolerant to salt stress: in vitro selection. Cent Eur J Biol 8:765–776. https://doi.org/10.2478/s11535-013-0194-1
Clarke N, Fuksová K, Gryndler M, Lachmanová Z, Liste HH, Rohlenová J, Schroll R, Schröder P, Matucha M (2009) The formation and fate of chlorinated organic substances in temperate and boreal forest soils. Environ Sci Pollut Res 16:127–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-008-0090-4
Fan Y, Weisberg PJ, Nowak RS (2014) Spatio-temporal analysis of remotely-sensed forest mortality associated with road de-icing salts. Sci Total Environ 472:929–938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.103 Epub 2013 Dec 15.PMID: 24342100
Gai YP, Ji XL, Lu W, Han XJ, Yang GD, Zheng CC (2011) A novel late embryogenesis abundant like protein associated with chilling stress in Nicotiana tabacum cv. bright yellow-2 cell suspension culture. Mol Cell Proteomics 10:M111.010363
Gałuszka A, Migaszewski ZM, Podlaski R, Dołęgowska S, Michalik A (2011) The influence of chloride deicers on mineral nutrition and the health status of roadside trees in the city of Kielce, Poland. Environ Monit Assess 176:451–464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1596-z
Gladkov EA, Dolgikh YI, Gladkova OV (2014) In vitro selection for tolerance to soil chloride salinization in perennial grasses. Sel’skokhozyaistvennaya Biologiya (Agricultural Biology) 4:106–111
Gladkov EA, Tashlieva II, Gladkova OV (2021) Ornamental plants adapted to urban ecosystem pollution: lawn grasses and painted daisy tolerating copper. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:14115–14120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11423-6
Gladkov EA, Gladkova OV (2020) Cell selection to increase zinc resistance. P-2061. Meeting abstract. Plant Posters. In Vitro Cell. Dev.Biol.-Animal. 56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11626-020-00455-4
Gladkov EA, Gladkova OV (2021a) Ecological problems of the use of deicing reagents and lawn grasses. Ecological Readings - 2021. Collection of materials of the XII National Conference, 174-179
Gladkov EA, Gladkova OV (2021b) Cell Selection to Increase Deicing Reagents Resistance. P-2024. Meeting abstract. Plant Posters. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol-Animal 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11626-021-00567-5
Glagolev S, Anastasia S, Svetlana S (2018) Basis for application of new-generation anti-icing materials as an efficient way to reduce the accident rate on roads in winter. Transp Res Procedia 36:193–198
He S, Han Y, Wang Y, Zhai H, Liu Q (2009) In vitro selection and identification of sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) plants tolerant to NaCl. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 96:69–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11240-008-9461-2
Kahraman M, Sevim G, Bor M (2019) The role of proline, glycinebetaine, and trehalose in stress-responsive gene expression. In: Hossain M, Kumar V, Burritt D, Fujita M, Mäkelä P (eds) Osmoprotectant-mediated abiotic stress tolerance in plants. Springer, Cham
Kashyap SP, Kumari N, Mishra P, Moharana DP, Aamir M (2021) Tapping the potential of Solanum lycopersicum L. pertaining to salinity tolerance: perspectives and challenges. Genet Resour Crop Evol 68:2207–2233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-021-01174-9
Mastalerczuk G, Borawska-Jarmułowicz B, Kalaji HM (2019) How Kentucky bluegrass tolerate stress caused by sodium chloride used for road de-icing? Environ Sci Pollut Res 26:913–922. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3640-4
Marcum KB (2014) Salinity tolerant turfgrasses for biosaline urban landscape agriculture. In: Khan M.A., Böer B., Öztürk M., Al Abdessalaam T.Z., Clüsener-Godt M., Gul B. (eds) Sabkha ecosystems. Tasks for Vegetation Science, vol 47. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7411-7_15
Munns R (2005) Genes and salt tolerance: bringing them together. The New Phytologist 167:645–663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01487.x
Munns R, Tester M (2008) Mechanisms of salinity tolerance. Annu Rev Plant Biol 59:651–681
Minocha R, Majumdar R, Minocha SC (2014) Polyamines and abioti stress in plants: a complex relationship. Front Plant Sci 5:175. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2014.00175
Niedrist GH, Cañedo-Argüelles M, Cauvy-Fraunié S (2021) Salinization of Alpine rivers during winter months. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:7295–7306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11077-4
Nikiforova EM, Kosheleva NE, Vlasov DV (2014) Monitoring of salinization of snow and soils in the eastern district of Moscow with deicing mixtures. Basic Res 11-2:340–347
Ordóñez-Barona C, Sabetski V, Millward AA, Steenberg J (2018) De-icing salt contamination reduces urban tree performance in structural soil cells. J Environ Pollut Mar 234:562–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.101
Patykowski J, Kołodziejek J, Wala M Peer J. (2018) Biochemical and growth responses of silver maple (Acer saccharinum L.) to sodium chloride and calcium chloride. 6:e5958. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5958.
Rout GR, Senapati SK, Panda JJ (2008) Selection of salt tolerant plants of Nicotiana tabacum L. Through in vitro and its biochemical characterization. Biologia futura 59:77–92. https://doi.org/10.1556/ABiol.59.2008.1.7
Qian R, Ma X, Zhang X, Hu Q, Liu H, Zheng J (2021) Effect of exogenous spermidine on osmotic adjustment, antioxidant enzymes activity, and gene expression of Gladiolus gandavensis seedlings under salt stress. J Plant Growth Regul 40:1353–1367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-020-10198-x
Queirós F, Fidalgo F, Santos I, Salema R (2007) In vitro selection of salt tolerant cell lines in Solanum tuberosum L. Biol Plant 51:728–734. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10535-007-0149-y
Roy SJ, Tester M (2013) Increasing salinity tolerance of crops. In: Christou P., Savin R., Costa-Pierce B.A., Misztal I., Whitelaw C.B.A. (eds) Sustainable food production. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5797-8_429
Sudhersan C, Jibi MS, Ashkanani J, Al-Ajeel A (2012) In vitro screening of potato cultivars for salinity tolerance. Am -Eurasian J Sustain Agric 6(4):344–348
Willmert HM, Osso JD Jr, Twiss MR, Langen TAJ (2018) Winter road management effects on roadside soil and vegetation along a mountain pass in the Adirondack Park, New York, USA. Environ Manag 225:215–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.07.085
Yuan S, Zhao J, Li Z, Hu Q, Yuan N, Zhou M, Xia X, Noorai R, Saski C, Li S, Luo H (2019) MicroRNA396-mediated alteration in plant development and salinity stress response in creeping bentgrass. Hortic Res 6:48
Zamin M, Khattak AM, Salim AM, Marcum KB, Shakur M, Shah S, Jan I, Fahad S (2019) Performance of Aeluropus lagopoides (mangrove grass) ecotypes, a potential turfgrass, under high saline conditions. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26:13410–13421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04838-3
Zamin M, Fahad S, Khattak AM, Adnan M, Wahid F, Raza A, Wang D, Saud S, Noor M, Bakhat HF, Mubeen M, Hammad HM, Soliman MH, Elkelish AA, Riaz M, Nasim W (2020) Developing the first halophytic turfgrasses for the urban landscape from native Arabian desert grass. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:39702–39716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06218-3
Zhang Q, Zuk A, Rue K (2013) Salinity tolerance of nine fine fescue cultivars compared to other cool-season turfgrasses. Sci Hortic 159:67–71
Zítkova J, Hegrova J, Keken Z, Ličbinsky R (2021) Impact of road salting on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies). Ecol Eng 159:106–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.106-129
Funding
Part of research was carried out within the state assignment of Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (theme 121050500047-5).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceptualization: Evgeny Aleksandrovich Gladkov, Olga Victorovna Gladkova
Methodology: Evgeny Aleksandrovich Gladkov, Olga Victorovna Gladkova
Experimental work: Evgeny Aleksandrovich Gladkov, Olga Victorovna Gladkova
Writing: Evgeny Aleksandrovich Gladkov, Olga Victorovna Gladkova
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable
Consent for publication
Not applicable
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gladkov, E.A., Gladkova, O.V. Ornamental plants adapted to urban ecosystem pollution: lawn grasses tolerating deicing reagents. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 22947–22951 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16355-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16355-3