Abstract
India has the biggest market for fruits, vegetables, and flowers in Asia and generates enormous amounts of garbage every day. Numerous food sectors throughout the globe generate a substantial amount of waste in the form of peels or by-products. The environmental system is severely harmed by these wastes. Today, numerous methods are employed to come up with other applications for these wastes since the by-products are a great source of diverse bioactive compounds beneficial to human health, such as creatine, carotenoids, flavonoids, polyphenols, and polysaccharides. The current review offers several unique perspectives on using fruit peels to minimise waste generation and its detrimental effects. An innovative bio-refinery strategy would try to turn fruit peel waste into a greater variety of useful compounds. The leftovers from most extraction procedures may also be utilised as sustainable resources to make biofuels. This paper also discusses the use of various techniques employed while analysing substances in plant-based goods, including the latest advanced technology. Moreover, to make certain effective waste management solutions, a careful assessment of the economic and environmental advantages relative to current choices is required.
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1 Introduction
In developing countries, plants were used traditionally to prepare herbal medicines as they exhibit several pharmacological properties (Ahmad et al., 1998). India is home to around 15% of the 20,000 medicinal plants found worldwide, or 300–5000 plants (Lydia et al., 2016a). Because of their ease of availability and little to no toxicity, previous studies have focused on the development and use of therapeutic plants. The growing trend of using plants as medicine has resulted in about 80% of the world's population relying on alternative medicine sources. One substitute source for this is fruit peels, which are discarded into the environment instead of being employed for their various pharmacological characteristics and are regarded as agricultural waste (Abdollahzadeh et al., 2011; Saleem & Saeed, 2020). The consumption of the fruits, (like production of jams and jellies) produced wastes on exceptionally large scale by fruit processing industries and cause environmental pollution due to improper utilization and disposal. Therefore, using fruits peels to prepare herbal drugs are beneficial to our environment in all aspects, as they can reduce the environmental pollution, can be used to make products from them and, also, hundreds of diseases can be cured by the products prepared from these wastes. The peels of such fruits are a great source of nutrients and function as a rich source of valuable compounds, supplements, food additives and some value-added products can be produced by them (Pathak et al., 2019). It's been noted that fruit peels include phenolics, tannins, flavonoids, triterpenoids, glycosides, carotenoids, ellagitannins, anthocyanins, vitamin C, and essential oils. The amount of total phenolics and flavonoids in the same fruit peels might vary depending on the solvent used, as shown in Table 1. Sugar components can also be extracted from peels of different fruits such as almond fruit, banana, calabash, custard apple, muskmelon, orange, papaya, pineapple, pomegranate (Kumar et al., 2012). Some fruit peels namely Carica papaya (papaya), Ananas comosus (Pineapple) and Actinidia deliciosa (Kiwi) have proteolytic enzyme activity, hence, they can be a suitable alternative to produce enzymes at low cost as they utilize the fruit waste and reduce the pollution (Vel & Stanley, 2015). Due to their potential for diversified bioactivities, such as anti-carcinogenic, digestive, analgesic, antioxidative, antiviral, and antibacterial effects, moreover, these volatile substances are exploited in the pharmaceutical business (Liang et al., 2022). According to Parashar et al., 2014, fruit peels have enormous the ability to function as a source of newer, better, healthier, and more efficient for various purposes. The fruits have specific and identifiable scent, since there is a diverse variety of volatile chemicals. Aroma is a key sensory quality that has a considerable impact on how customers perceive and accept fruit and its products. The applications of common fruit peels are depicted in Fig. 1. Marina and Noriham (2014) studied the mango peel extract possesses more phenolic content compared to guava and papaya peel extract i.e., mango peel extract has more antioxidant effects than guava and papaya peel extract. Antioxidants are frequently employed to increase the shelf life and stabilization of lipids and foods containing lipids additionally to preserve and safeguard foods against microbial spoilage, dis-colouration, or degeneration brought on by auto-oxidation (Sultana et al., 2012). Radical initiated reaction can be prevented by antioxidants. Antioxidant and antibacterial property are reported in different kind of fruit peels such as Maclura pomifera (Osage orange), Punica granatum (Pomegranate or Anar), Musa balbisiana (Banana), Citrus limetta (Sweet lime or Mousambi), Malus domestica (Apple), Carica papaya (Papaya), and Mangifera indica (Mango) (Prakash et al., 2013). Table 2 demonstrates the antioxidant capability of various fruit peels as determined by various workers through different tests (Fig. 2).
The main goal of this study is to provide a pathway for more effective use of waste from fruit processing that satisfies Sustainable Development Goal No. 12 of the UN: “Sustainable production and consumption”. This objective covers the primary difficulty of effectively managing waste and using natural resources to assist poor countries in transitioning to more sustainable patterns of consumption by 2030. If any action is to be done for a product connected to these fruit peels being utilized in the future as food additives, food preservatives, and toxic-free food grade disinfectants, the food or pharmaceutical industries may find this information to be productive. Given the present issues surrounding the usage of antibiotics, interest in plants possessing antibacterial characteristics has increased. Thus, the aim of this research is to shed light on the biotechnological methods employed to extract the numerous phytochemicals and beneficial compounds from fruit waste. The present review paper provides all the related details of biological activities in a concise manner to the community and readers as well.
2 Antioxidant property
Gallic acid and ellagic acid possess strong anti-free radical properties and they reduce the levels of superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide and detoxify the liver enzymes such as catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase (Chidambara Murthy et al., 2002).
2.1 Pomegranate peel
Due to the antioxidant property of pomegranate, it helps in stabilizing sunflower oil and provides thermal stability (Iqbal et al., 2008). The fruit skins of pomegranates include phenolic compounds such as flavonoids (anthocyanin, catechins) and tannins (punicalin, pedunculagin, punicalagin, ellagic and gallic acid) (Ismail et al., 2012).
2.2 Citrus peel
The reports demonstrate that the ethanol-based extract of orange peel exhibits a considerable number of phenolic compounds and there is a close correlation between the total phenolic content and the reducing power (Hegazy & Ibrahium, 2012). A new strategy for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus may be offered by the polyphenolic chemicals derived from Citrus limetta peel extract that have both antihyperglycemic and antioxidant effects (Padilla-Camberos et al., 2014). Citrus maxima contain many phytochemicals such as flavonoids, alkaloids and phenols and it is a reliable source of nutrients (Ani & Abel, 2018). The antioxidant capacity of phenolic and flavonoid content in plants is the main contributor to the specific biological actions in disease prevention and treatment, according to statistically substantial association between TPC, TFC and the antioxidant assays such findings support the hypothesis that C. sinensis extracts have some antioxidant activity (Liew et al., 2018).
2.3 Mango peel
Kim et al. (2010) stated that antioxidant and antiproliferative characteristics of mango peel may be related to the bioactive chemicals that are present there working in concert. The extraction solvent, however, is the most crucial element among the optimal circumstances. The temperature of the extraction process also affects the effectiveness of the process; in particular, temperatures between 50 and 75°C favour the ability of mango peel extracts to suppress lipid peroxidation (Dorta et al., 2012). The results of an HPLC examination showed that the chemical composition of mango peel extract consisted of five primary components: caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, gallic acid, procyanidin B2, and oleanolic acid, vanillic aldehyde (Bai et al., 2018) (Fig. 3).
2.4 Papaya peels
Chukwuka et al. (2013) evaluated the nutritional value of papaya fruit at three distinct stages: unripe, hard ripe and very ripe. Carbohydrate, fat, vitamins, protein, fiber content, calcium, potassium, magnesium, and vitamin-C content decreased as papaya’s ripening. However, vitamin A, riboflavin, moisture content was increases as papaya’s ripening process. Aqueous extract of papaya peels possesses antioxidant activity (Pawpaw, 2016). Jamal et al. (2017) investigated that Carica papaya has the ability to serve as an antioxidant and prevent our body from diseases linked to free radical damage.
2.5 Banana peels
Mokbel and Hashinaga (2005) stated that a green peel extract had more significant activity in various solvent extracts than a yellow peel extract. Individual banana peel phenolic compounds, such as dopamine, ferulic acid, and catechins, also have strong antioxidant and antibacterial properties and may be used as food preservatives (Vu et al., 2018).
2.6 Apple peels
The apple peel has the highest concentrations of phenolic chemicals than pulp. Peels possess many phytochemical compounds such as catechins and flavonol glycosides, particulasrly Rutin (Escarpa & Gonzalez, 1998). Eberhardt et al. (2000) stated that apple fruit has antioxidant activity as 100 gm of fresh apple is equivalent to 1500 mg of vitamin C. In the apple fruit, the compounds, rutin (27.43%), epicatechin (24.93%), dicaffeoylquinic acid (16.14%) and caffeic acid (15.3%) are the most abundant phenolics (Freatianni et al., 2011). The peels had a greater overall concentration of phenolic and flavonoid compounds than the flesh-peel combination or the flesh alone. Apple peels are a valuable source of antioxidants and can provide health advantages when taken due to their high phenolic component concentration and antioxidant activity (Parashar et al., 2014). Apple juice processing generates a huge amount of leftover, known as apple pomace, which consists primarily of peels, seeds, and pulp; and additionally, it supplies bioactive compounds include 114 dietary fibre, protein, biopolymers, and natural antioxidants Cargnin and Gnoatto (2017) (Fig. 4).
3 Medicinal values
3.1 Pomegranate peel
Pomegranate peels may be a desirable alternative in pharmaceuticals as it exhibits anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic (Mastrogiovanni et al., 2019; Panichayupakaranant et al., 2010), anti-ulcerogenic (Moghaddam et al., 2013), anti-cancer (Asmaa et al., 2015), and anti-diarrheal activities (Zhao et al., 2018). Punica granatum peel and seed oil extracts have a hepatoprotective effect against the rat liver injury caused by diethylnitrosamine (DEN) and phenobarbital (PB) (Shaban et al., 2013). Pomegranate (Punica granatum L) is valued for its high content of polyphenols including ellagic acid, ursolic acid, oleanolic and gallic acids and other flavonoids. Glucose level in blood, total cholesterol and triglycerides maintained under the effect of peel extract and shows the valuable effect in coronary heart disease (Dos Santos et al., 2016). The action of pomegranate peel extract (PPE) potently suppressed the proliferation of thyroid cancer cell lines and induced apoptosis in cancer cells (Li et al., 2016) (Fig. 5).
PPE reduced the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), inflammatory cytokine expression, and cell adhesion molecules in THP-1 monocytic cells (human acute monocytic leukemia cell line) exposed to PM10 as well as avoided inflammatory events brought on by particulate matter (Park et al., 2016). In triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells, PPE lowered vimentin, ZEB1, and β-catenin gene expression while increasing E-cadherin expression and caused apoptosis in cells at quite high doses (500, 1000 μg/mL) (Bagheri et al., 2018). It also helps in maintaining the blood pressure in patients of diabetes mellitus type-2 (Grabež et al., 2020).
3.2 Citrus peel
Citrus microcarpa (Kalamansi) shows hepato-protective activity against acetaminophen-induced liver damage in male Sprague Dawley rats (Casimiro et al., 2010). Extract of Citrus limetta fruit peel using methanol exhibited anticancer efficacy in Swiss albino mice suffering from Ehrlich ascites cancer (Kundu Sen et al., 2012). In male albino mice, Citrus unshiu peel extract alleviate hyperglycemia by increasing insulin/glucagon secretion and decreasing hepatic PEPCK gene expression and interaction (Park et al., 2013). Disturbing in insulin secretion in pancreatic cells leading to diabetes, is the most common disease in India. Hydroethanolic extract of Citrus reticulata shows anti-diabetic property (Ali et al., 2020). Citrus sinensis possesses anti-diabetic and anti-hypercholestermic activity (Muhtadi et al., 2015). Citrus species shows anticancer activity (Nair et al., 2018) and silver nanoparticles of orange peel extract (Citrus clementina) shows cytotoxicity against tumour rat glial C6 cells (Saratale et al., 2018).
3.3 Mango peel
Lipid per oxidation, membrane protein degradation, morphological changes and oxidative stress can be protected by using mango peel extract (Ajila & Rao, 2008). Mango peels are also used in fermentation process to produce polygalacturonase using Aspergillus fumigates (Garg & Ashfaque, 2010). The extract exhibits various kinds of activities such as anti-proliferative (Ali et al., 2012; Kim et al., 2012) and antidiabetic properties (Gondi & Rao, 2015).
3.4 Papaya peels
A live micro-organism that can be consumed as health supplements and provides health benefits is called probiotics. Production of Lactobacillus acidophilus, (a probiotic) can be possible with the help of papaya peel extract (Hardia & Iqbal, 2014). John et al. (2021) reported that silver nanoparticles of methanol extract of Carica papaya peels possesses antibacterial and anticancer activities (Fig. 6).
3.5 Banana peels
Inner peel extract of four species of banana; Musa sapientum, M. paradisiaca, M. cavendish and M. acuminata, was evaluated for antioxidant and antihyperglycemic activities. Out of these M. cavendish and M. acuminata exhibited higher antihyperglycemic activity (Navghare & Dhawale, 2017). Ethanol extract of banana peels lowers the cholesterol level and is helpful in the treatment of obesity (Berawi & Bimandama, 2018). Banana fruit peel extract also possesses anticancer activity, and it may prove beneficial to hematological parameters as there is significant elevation in RBCs, Hb, HCT, MCV, WBCs (Kamal et al., 2019).
3.6 Apple peels
In the Western world, colorectal cancer is a primary causes of cancer-related fatalities. Colo-rectal cancer is thought to be caused by a combination of variables including diet and lifestyle. Phenolic compounds isolated from apple peel extract are beneficially altered three colo-rectal cancer risk indicators without causing cytotoxicity as it protects DNA degeneration, increase barrier function, and prevent invasion by using HT29, HT115 and CaCo-2 cell lines in vitro (McCann et al., 2007). Against HepG2 human liver cancer cells, MCF-7 human breast cancer cells, and Caco-2 human colon cancer cells, most triterpenoids extracted from apple peels demonstrated highly potent antiproliferative activity (He & Liu, 2008).
Balasuriya and Rupasinghe (2012) analysed that flavonoid rich apple peel inhibits angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) which is helpful in treatment of high blood pressure. EtOH-AcOEt Extract of apple peel possesses ursolic acid which is responsible for anti-inflammatory activity and used in treatment of arthritis (Pádua et al., 2014). Hashemi and Yousefzadeh (2015) stated that extract of apple peels possesses triterpenoids (Ursolic acid and Oleanoilic acid), out of which Oleanoilic acid shows powerful anti-cancer activity on human B cell lymphoma. Activated carbon is prepared from apple peels, which is used in wastewater treatment (Enniya et al., 2018). Along with valuable source of antioxidant property, phenolic containing extract of apple peel also shows cyto-protective effect in Insulin-producing RINm5F cells (Yassin et al., 2018). In a hyperlipidemic rat model, the apple peels extract could operate as an antihyperlipidemic agent by lowering LDL and raising HDL levels (Susilowati et al., 2020) (Fig. 7).
4 Anti-pathogenicity
4.1 Pomegranate peel
Worm-borne illnesses are often persistent and frequently have higher mortality rates. Helminth infections caused by soil-transmitted helminths (STH) affect many people in developing countries, especially in rural areas. Pomegranate peel extract possesses anthelmintic activity against female Ascaris suum (Amelia et al., 2017) under in-vitro conditions, earth worm (Allolobophora caliginosa) at the concentration of 300 mg/mL and shows anticoccidial activity against Eimeria papillata (Dkhil, 2013). One of the most prevalent gastrointestinal nematode, Ascaridia galli, affects a wide spectrum of domestic and wild birds around the world. The infection causes a reduction in body mass. Aqueous extract of pomegranate fruit peels shows anthelmintic property against Ascaridia galli (Aziz et al., 2018). Apart from these qualities, pomegranate fruit peel also contains antibacterial and insecticidal capabilities (Tables 3 and 4).
4.2 Citrus peel
Insect-borne diseases are still a major cause of sickness and death across the world. Ethanolic extract of Citrus sinensis exhibits insecticidal properties against the first instar larvae of Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus with LC50 values 182.4, 204.87 and 244.70 ppm, respectively (Murugan et al., 2012). Silver nanoparticles of Citrus limetta peel aqueous extract exhibits antimicrobial properties against five bacteria viz. Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Streptococcus mutans and Escherichia coli with IC50 values 4.28, 4.28, 4.28, 4.28 and 4.28 μg/ml, respectively and four yeast fungi, viz. Candida albicans, C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis and C. tropicalis with IC50 values 4.75, 5.94, 4.75 and 5.94 μg/ml, accordingly (Dutta et al., 2020). In addition to these properties, Citrus fruit peel extracts have antibacterial properties, as demonstrated in Tables 5.
4.3 Mango peel
Dorta et al. (2016) discovered antibiotic action against significant yeast species that cause food spoilage, including Dekkera anomala, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Zygosaccharomtces bailii, Z. bisporus, and Z. rouxii, as well as human infections by Candida bracarensis, C. glabrata, C. nivariensis, and C. parapsilosis. According to Xing et al. (2021), bactericidal action against S. aureus was more effective than against E. coli because silver nanoparticles prepared from mango peel extract, can sterilize by destroying cell walls, preventing enzyme respiration, and harming the DNA replication pathway. According to Table 6, mango peel extract has antimicrobial properties against a variety of bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
4.4 Papaya peels
Papaya is rich in vitamin A, B, and C as well as proteolytic enzymes like papain and chymopapain, which have antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial activities (Orhue & Momoh, 2013). Aqueous extract of papaya peel shows insecticidal activity against Aedes aegypti (Hayatie et al., 2015). Due to the synergistic action of secondary metabolites like alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, and flavonoids, the silver nanoparticles of green papaya peels exhibit an increase in the antibacterial activity (Agarwal et al., 2015). Papaya also has antibacterial and antiviral properties in addition to its insecticidal properties (Table 7).
4.5 Banana peels
Chabuck et al. (2013), stated that aqueous extracts of fresh yellow banana peels could be utilized in place of synthetic medications in the treatment of bacterial illnesses. These extracts are effective against both Gram positive and negative bacteria. Bagul et al. (2017) extracted 3-carboxycoumarins compound from the waste of banana peels and used as biological agent for antibacterial, anticancer and cosmetics properties. According to Behiry et al. (2019), the methanolic extract from Musa paradisiaca peels demonstrated potential as a wood-biofungicide against the development of Fusarium culmorum and Rhizoctonia solani, moreover a bactericide against Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which might be regarded as a natural preservative for wood. Table 8 below discusses the antibacterial properties of banana peels.
4.6 Apple peels
Du et al. (2011) observed antibacterial activity of apple fruit skin against Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli. According to Prakash et al. (2013), aqueous extract of apple peel shows the antibacterial activity against Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella. Lee et al. (2016) stated that organic solvent extracts of apple peel possess antimicrobial activity against Salmonella enterica, Shigella flexneri, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus. Table 9 below discusses the antibacterial properties of apple peels.
5 Food preservative
5.1 Pomegranate peel
Pomegranate peel exhibits many bioactive compounds; hence, its by-products are used as preservative in food industry, it helps in preservation of many fruits such as strawberry (Zhang et al., 2010), citrus fruits (Pangallo et al., 2021) and it can also increase the shelf life of edible oils (El‐Hadary and Taha, 2020). It also improves the characteristic of juices (Trigo et al., 2020) and pomegranate peel extract (PPE) added to popular chicken meat products to extend their shelf life in cold storage by 2–3 weeks, PPE also worked well in preventing oxidative degradation in these chicken products (Kanatt et al., 2010).
5.2 Citrus peel
The pectin from citrus peels may be used as a natural and inexpensive binder in dosage forms. It may prove to be a superior to commercially available synthetic binders (Khule et al., 2012). Pectin is mostly used in food as a gelling, thickening and stabilizing agent. The most common use is to give jams, jellies, and marmalades a jelly-like consistency when they would otherwise be sweet liquids. The presence and extraction of pectin from the sweet lime peel was confirmed by Devi et al. (2014).
5.3 Mango peel
Mango peel extract-containing PVA-cyclodextrin-gelatin film is a feasible solution for the creation of active food packaging that may be utilised as the main packaging material (Kanatt & Chawla, 2018). Mango waste product components are being proposed as novel sources of sustainable packaging materials, and they can also be used as active ingredients (Oliver-Simancas et al., 2021).
6 Production of bio-enzymes
Fruit wastes may be readily used in homes to create a crude solution of the hydrolytic enzymes, often known as bioenzymes or trash enzymes. Bio-composites are inexpensive materials that have the ability to increase plant production, improve soil texture, enrich the soil's nutritional quality, and prevent the formation of diseases.
6.1 Citrus peel
The production of pectinases, cellulases, and hemicellulases from Citrus limetta peels and endopolygalacturonase is made from Citrus limon peels demonstrated to be a superior substrate (Pathak et al., 2017). The eco-enzyme solutions are inexpensive since they are made from fruit waste, which is plentiful in supply. They offer significant promise for treating home wastewater as well as decreasing the burden on managing organic solid waste. Additionally, the eco-enzyme solutions created in this manner have demonstrated utility for cleaning, various residential, and agricultural uses (Patel et al., 2021).
6.2 Banana peels
According to Kokab et al. (2003), with the help of banana peel and solid-state fermentation (SSF), Bacillus subtilis synthesized alpha amylase. Many beneficial substances were isolated from banana peels (pectin, beta-cryptoxanthin, phenolic antioxidants, trans α carotene, trans β carotene, beta-tocopherol, vitamin E, phenolic compounds, gallic acid, ketones sterols, lipids, esters, pigments, glucose, fructose, amines, and ethylene) (Pathak et al., 2016). Banana Peels used as a substrate to produce enzymes such as α-amylase, cellulase, xylanase, laccase, manganese peroxidase and lipase (Pathak et al., 2017).
7 Other uses
7.1 Pomegranate peel
Pomegranate peel extracts possess many kinds of activities such as it inhibits the melanosis formation in white shrimp (Fang et al., 2013), inhibits mild steel corrosion in hydrochloric acid conditions. The efficiency of inhibition increased as the extract concentration was raised and the effect was attributed to the chemical components found in the extract solution adsorbing on the mild steel surface (Ashassi-Sorkhabi et al., 2015). The ZnO nanoparticles prepared from fruit peel extract of pomegranates were used as reducing and stabilizing agents in synthesis process, which also exhibits antibacterial and anticancer properties (Sukri et al., 2019).
7.2 Citrus peel
Several bacteria (Actinobacillus succinogenes, Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens, Mannheimia succiniciproducens), yeast (S. cerevisiae), and fungi (Byssochlamys nivea, Aspergillus etc.) were employed to produce succinic acid from Orange, Mausami, and Lemon Peels. Orange peel is also used to prepare citric acid and lactic acid as natural sources (Pathak et al., 2017).
7.3 Papaya peels
Biogas is renewable fuel which is produced by organic breakdown of agricultural, animal and food wastes. It is a mixture of gases, as methane and carbon dioxide are the major constituents. It can be used in different fields such as heating and electricity generation and used for vehicle fuel. Dahunsi et al., (2017) used the extract of papaya peel waste in successful production of biogas. Chaubey et al., (2018) reported the hydrochloric acid (HCl) extract of Carica papaya peel to inhibit the corrosion effect in aluminum alloy.
7.4 Banana peels
Banana peels are helpful to remove cadmium ions from industrial wastewater, thus they may be employed in wastewater treatment (Memon et al., 2008). The release of liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the marine ecosystem due to human activity, causes pollution to the environment, and is called oil spill. Banana peels can be used as oil spill cleanup due to its satisfactory results on sorption capacity for gas oil (El-Din et al., 2018). In water and wastewater treatment turbidity arises due to colloidal and suspended particles, and it can be removed by coagulation–flocculation method. The aqueous extract of banana peel extract acts as natural coagulants to remove turbidity from stimulated turbid water (Deverey et al., 2019).
7.4.1 Extraction techniques
A useful resource to produce dietary supplements, nutritional additives, and therapeutic foods is bioactive chemicals. It has been shown that the majority of these bioactive compounds might have health-promoting properties, including anti-cancer, cardioprotective, antimicrobial, antiseptic, and anti-obesity properties. The bioactive compounds being extracted may need different extraction techniques. The separation processes can be impacted by several factors, including heat, plant components, pressure, and solvent type (Milovanovic et al., 2022). Flow-chart of extraction techniques listed in Fig. 8.
Conventional processes are referred to as usual ways since they have been in use for an extended period. The three conventional extraction techniques are found to be hydro-distillation, Soxhlet extraction, and maceration (Ali et al., 2022). Even nevertheless, these methods were initially devised just for lipid extraction, significant bioactive chemicals have long been extracted from a number of plant sections using Soxhlet extraction. As a standard technique for isolating essential oil, hydro-distillation is an established process. A common method for obtaining medicinal plants is maceration, which is typically used to herbal remedies (Khoddami et al., 2013).
Reduce the amount of organic solvent used, speed up the extraction process, and are easy to use in innovative methods of extraction. Methods for extracting bioactive ingredients that are primarily focussed on enzyme-assisted extraction, solvent extraction (SE), solid–liquid extraction, pulsed electric field (PEF), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), subcritical water extraction (SCW), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) (Ali et al., 2022). Solid–liquid extraction is one of the most widely applied techniques for phenolic chemical extraction from agricultural and culinary waste. It does, however, come with a cost, restricted output, lengthy processing periods, and the use of organic solvents, which are excellent for extracting phenolic substances but have several drawbacks of their own, including toxicity, heating, and non-biodegradability (Welton, 2015). In solvent extraction, solvents need less energy and are recyclable, non-volatile, biodegradable, and non-toxic. The selection of a solvent affects the extraction process. The best option would be a solvent with a low boiling point, rapid mass transfer, and little toxicity. Solvent extraction is a better approach than other comparable ones because of its low operating costs and ease of usage (Ali et al., 2022). Frequently, enzymes are employed in enzyme-assisted extraction to extract beneficial compounds from food waste. Because it uses water (solvent) instead of organic solvents, enzyme-aided extraction is thought to be a more environmentally benign method of extracting bioactive chemicals and oil. The foundation is in the capacity of enzymes to facilitate interactions in aqueous environments with mild processing conditions (Khoddami et al., 2013; Nadar et al., 2018). Using microorganisms to transform food waste products into useful products, fermentation is one of the first product-specific processes. Solid-state fermentation is the method of fermentation wherein microbes develop on solid substrates without encountering liquid. The process of liquefying or fermenting a medium in an environment of water is known as submerged fermentation (Sadh et al., 2018). Fruit wastes and remains may presently be transformed into valuable chemicals using a new and creative method called pulsed electric field (PEF). To achieve this remarkable separation method, a material is "sandwiched" between two electrodes and exposed to high-voltage microsecond pulses. PEF is a wonderful way to separate compounds that are heat-sensitive (Barba et al., 2015). Heat is produced inside the substance during due to the fact that microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) conductivity of ions and dipolar rotation of the interior molecules. Requiring fewer organic solvents, requiring shorter time for extraction (usually less than 30 min), and producing higher extraction yields are some benefits of using MAE procedures (Khoddami et al., 2013). Liquid solvents are used to extract chemical and inorganic components derived from solid matrices more easily by using ultrasonic radiation, which has frequencies higher than 20 kHz. Like MAE, ultrasound-aided extraction (UAE) reduces the quantity of solvent and time needed for successfully extracting phenolic chemicals from agri-food residues (Ali et al., 2022). A supercritical fluid extraction is a kind of solvent that develops when the fluid's temperature and pressure rise over its critical values. Moreover, compared to other procedures, there is a much-reduced chance of contaminating the sample with solvent contaminants and the deterioration of extracted chemicals may be prevented in the absence of light and air (Khoddami et al., 2013). Subcritical water extraction (SCWE) is additional eco-friendly extraction techniques that has been effectively used to separate phenolic chemicals. It has been shown that SCWE treatment is strong enough to remove a variety of polar to low-polar molecules. For the extraction of significant volumes of phenolic chemicals without leaving harmful organic solvent residues, SCWE may be a useful substitute industrial technique (Khoddami et al., 2013).
7.4.2 Risk assessment study
Another aspect of this review is the risk assessment study of these fruit peels. Pomegranate fruit peels do not significantly alter the body mass, haematological, cytotoxic, or genotoxic characteristics of Swiss mice (Vale et al., 2020). The levels of albumin, total protein, alkaline phosphatase (ALK-P), aspartate amino transferase (AST), and alanine amino transferase (ALT) remained largely unchanged when Wistar rats were compared to the normal control group using aqueous extracts of banana fruit peels (Edenta et al., 2017). Like this, Ehigiator et al. (2018) conducted the study demonstrating the negligible impact of banana peel extracts on the liver, kidney, or serum lipids in Sprague Dawley rats. The parameters included in this study were organ weight, serum alkaline phosphatase, aminotransferases, total cholesterol, conjugated bilirubin, total bilirubin, urea, uric acid, creatinine, glucose, low density lipoprotein, high density lipoprotein, and triglycerides total protein, albumin, and serum electrolytes. According to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Guidelines 423, Reddy et al. (2020) conducted an oral acute toxicity analysis in Alzheimer's Wistar albino rats and observed no significant changes in behavioural parameters or unfavourable effects from a single dosage of 2000 mg/kg papaya peel extract. Thus, turning fruit leftovers (peel) into necessary materials or goods might not only open new research avenues but also assist mitigate existing environmental problems.
7.4.3 Uncertainties affecting the scalability and commercialization of fruit peels
The scalability of common fruit peels waste management using their pharmaceutical and insecticidal attributes can be significantly affected by various uncertainties. Here is a breakdown of the key uncertainties and their potential impacts:
a) Resource availability and variability
Fluctuations in fruit production, seasonality, and pest infestations can impact the consistent availability of fruit peels in enormous quantities. Variations in peel quality (e.g., ripeness, pesticide residues) may influence how well bioactive chemicals are extracted and how effective they are. Extraction of bioactive substances in large quantities might require dedicated land for peel drying or composting, potentially competing with agricultural or other land uses. Water scarcity in certain regions could limit the feasibility of washing and processing copious quantities of peels.
b) Technical uncertainties
Efficient and scalable techniques used to extract bioactive substances from fruit peels are crucial for economic viability. Scaling up lab-scale processes to industrial levels might encounter unforeseen challenges, leading to reduced yields or increased processing costs. Formulating bioactive extracts into stable and effective pharmaceuticals or insecticides can be challenging. Uncertainties regarding shelf life, compatibility with other ingredients, and potential deterioration in different environmental circumstances can affect product marketability and long-term efficacy.
c) Regulatory and market uncertainties
Extensive safety and efficacy testing is required for commercializing pharmaceuticals and insecticides derived from fruit peels. Regulatory hurdles and lengthy approval processes can significantly delay or even prevent market entry.
Public perception and acceptance of natural products generated from waste items such as fruit peels can be uncertain. The market for these goods might be in need of be lower than anticipated, affecting the economic viability of scaling up waste management efforts.
d) Environmental and sustainability uncertainties
The environmental impact of large-scale peel processing needs careful consideration. Increased water and energy consumption, potential generation of hazardous waste during extraction, and transportation and storage-related greenhouse gas emissions are all aspects that can undermine the sustainability of the waste management approach. Fruit peel waste management using their bioactive properties might compete with existing practices like composting or anaerobic digestion. Careful evaluation of the environmental and economic benefits compared to existing options is crucial to ensure optimal waste management strategies.
Overall, addressing these uncertainties through comprehensive research, pilot projects, and robust economic and environmental assessments is essential for realizing the full potential of scaling up common fruit peels waste management using their valuable pharmaceutical and insecticidal attributes. By proactively addressing these uncertainties, researchers, entrepreneurs, and policymakers can contribute to developing sustainable and scalable solutions for fruit peel waste management, while simultaneously unlocking the potential of these natural resources for pharmaceutical and insecticidal applications.
8 Conclusion
India generates a staggering quantity of garbage every day, with fruit peel trash accounting for twenty to fifty percent of the waste generated by the fruit processing industry. These days, it's rare to find opportunities to recover useful components from fruit peel waste that able to be employed as a feedstock. The initial components and all processing stages possess an effect on the waste's composition, amount, and quality. Increased sustainability in the use of all resources (such as water, fertilisers, preserving soil health, and effective land management) would result from more thorough and efficient use of biomass related to food production. The findings of this review show that peel extracts have various therapeutic effects in addition to being high in flavonoids and polyphenols. These fruit peel extracts are quite effective in treating ailments, especially considering their plant origin and minimal environmental impact. Therefore, it makes sense to suggest turning fruit peels—which are now underutilized—into more commercially viable raw materials in order to make greater use of them. A byproduct called peel extract may be added to dietary supplements and pharmaceutical products. A recent report found that extracts from pomegranate peels have the strongest antibacterial properties of any frequently consumed fruit. The present review, therefore, demonstrated that fruit peels have a great deal of promise to act as a prototype for future antibacterial therapies that are safer, more effective, and better. Moreover, these natural fruit-based medicines can be disposed of safely than conventional drugs. It also increases the food items' shelf life as well as is a highly nutritious supplement. Apple pomace has a great deal of potential for use as a source of novel, strong, safe, and superior antioxidant and antibacterial chemicals, according to the findings of numerous fruit peel studies. Furthermore, there is still a lot of uncharted territory to be covered and the majority of action mechanisms that need to be explained, despite the fact that many of study has been done in previously, few years regarding the possible health advantages of chemicals that have been reported. Considering the current review, fruit peels have a considerable therapeutic potential and provide a number of health advantages for both humans and animals.
Therefore, the potential uses of fruit peel extracts as an inexpensive and abundant source of phenolic chemicals depend on clearly defined goals for future research: (a) the creation of inexpensive, effective techniques for phenolic compound recovery; (b) the potential application of phenolic compounds as beneficial ingredients in food or medicine; (c) the production of valuable goods; and (d) a decrease in environmental pollution. Fruit peels are suggested for use in a number of disciplines. An overview of sophisticated extraction methods for isolating and purifying phenolics from plant-based sources was given in this paper, along with outlines on certain sophisticated approaches for plant phenolic separation and identification. Subcritical water extraction has a number of benefits over conventional extraction techniques, including less expensive extracting agents, quicker extraction times, higher-quality extract, and a more environmental friendly process. The administration of fruit peel extracts in this particular scenario did not result in significant organ damage; nevertheless, the observed changes might be attributed to the extracts' low toxicity when used over an extended period of time. In addition to helping to develop scalable and sustainable methods for managing fruit peel waste, searchers, entrepreneurs, and legislators can unlock the potential of these natural resources for use in pharmaceutical and insecticidal applications by taking proactive steps to address these uncertainties.
Data availability
The data will be made available on the request.
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L. Mohan and S. Gupta: Conceptualization and Methodology, S. Gupta: Writing-Original Draft, S. Sharma: Writing-Review & Editing, A. P. Sikarwar and N. Loach: Investigation, L. Mohan: Supervision and Writing-Review & Editing.
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Gupta, S., Sharma, S., Loach, N. et al. Pharmacological and insecticidal attributes of common fruit peels: a review. Environ Dev Sustain (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04998-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04998-4