Abstract
The attendant effects of urbanization on the environment and human health are evaluable by measuring the potentially harmful element (PHE) concentrations in environmental media such as stream sediments. To evaluate the effect of urbanization in Osogbo Metropolis, the quality of stream sediments from a densely-populated area with commercial/industrial activities was contrasted with sediments from a sparsely-populated area with minimal anthropogenic input.
Forty samples were obtained: 29 from Okoko stream draining a Residential/Commercial Area (RCA, n = 14) and an Industrial Area (IA, n = 15), and 11 from Omu stream draining a sparsely-populated area (SPA). The samples were air-dried, sieved to < 75 micron fraction, and analysed for PHEs using inductively-coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo), pollution index (PI), ecological risk factor (Er) and index (ERI) were used for assessment. Inter-elemental relationships and source identification were done using Pearson’s correlation matrix and principal component analysis (PCA).
PHE concentrations in the stream sediments were RCA: Zn > Pb > Cu > Cr > Sr > Ni > Co, IA: Zn > Cr > Ni > Co > Pb > Cu > Sr and SPA: Zn > Co > Cr > Cu > Sr > Ni > Pb. Igeo calculations revealed moderate-heavy contamination of Cu, Pb and Zn in parts of RCA, moderate-heavy contamination of Zn in IA while SPA had moderate contamination of Co and Zn. PI values revealed that stream sediments of RCA are extremely polluted, while those of IA and SPA are moderately and slightly polluted, respectively.
The pollution of the stream sediments in RCA and IA is adduced to anthropogenic activities like vehicular traffic, automobile repairs/painting, blacksmithing/welding and metal scraping. In SPA however, the contamination resulted from the application of herbicides/fertilizers for agricultural purposes.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
Introduction
The attendant effects of urbanization include marked increase in population, mining/smelting activities, indiscriminate disposal of domestic and industrial waste, manufacturing/production processes, traffic emissions and industrial effluents (Cheng et al., 2014; Pavlović et al. 2017; Kolawole et al., 2018; Fajemila et al., 2022). Metal contamination in the environment has been attributed to these anthropogenic activities, which are ubiquitous especially in densely-populated areas. As the intensity of these activities increases, the by-products from them causes a reduction in the quality of environmental media such as air, soil, stream sediments, as well as surface and ground-water. The concern about the quality of environmental media in urban areas continues to grow, especially from an ecological and health perspective. Although the aforementioned anthropogenic activities are largely responsible for decrease in the quality of the environment, agriculture has also been known to contribute potentially harmful elements (PHEs) to the environment, albeit at minimal to moderate levels.
Research has shown that anthropogenic activities lead to significantly elevated levels of PHEs like Cd, As, Pb, Cu, Zn and Ni in environmental media. As the concentration of these PHEs increase in the environment, they eventually accumulate in the human body and have negative health consequences due to their non-biodegradable nature and long biological half-lives (Akinade & Olisa, 2014; Kirpichtchikova et al., 2006; Kolawole et al., 2022; Olatunji et al., 2022; Sathawara et al., 2004).
Streams are recipients of materials from the catchment areas they drain. Hence, they are natural sinks for debris and metals from upstream areas, and these accumulate over time to form part of the stream beds. There is a direct link between the intensity of anthropogenic activities in upstream areas and the contamination/pollution of stream sediments in an area (Christophoridis et al., 2019; Castro et al., 2021; Phillips and Fajemila 2024). Therefore, the quality of the sediments in a stream can be used as an indicator to evaluate the nature and intensity of human activities taking place within its catchment area. Ultimately, stream sediments can be used to assess the quality of the environment being studied. The general representative nature of stream sediments in downstream sites makes them a useful sampling medium for the detection of PHE anomalies related to mineralisation and for environmental studies related to pollution (Chakrapani, 2002).
An understanding of the dynamic relationship between urbanization and the quality of environmental media is necessary for environmental planning and monitoring. Hence, this study is aimed at evaluating the effect that human activities have on stream sediment quality in Osogbo metropolis. This was done by contrasting the quality of stream sediments in densely-populated and sparsely-populated areas.
Materials and methods
Study area description
Osogbo is a growing metropolitan city, located in southwestern Nigeria. The population of Osogbo has increased steadily since it became a Metropolis in the early 1990s (currently estimated to be 796,000 compared to 200,000 in 1991). With an area of 126 km2, Osogbo is characterised by dense population, vehicular traffic, indiscriminate waste dumping, welding/blacksmithing and automobile repair activities at the city centre. Northeast of the city centre, there is also a Foundry and scrap metal recycling sites of small to medium scale (Fig. 1). Factories like these are known to contribute high concentrations of Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb and Zn to the environment (Dragović et al. 2014; Owoade et al., 2015; Olatunji et al., 2018). Osogbo has a tropical climate, with annual rainfall of ca. 136 mm. Osogbo lies within the Nigerian Basement Complex, with lithologies such as schist, gneiss and pegmatite being the most dominant. The schists include mica, pelitic and talc-tremlite varieties, while the gneisses are mostly migmatitic. The pegmatite occur commonly as intrusions within the schists (Kolawole et al., 2023; Okunola & Olatunji, 2017).
This study, conducted during the dry season within 7°45′00″–7°48′45″ N and 4°33′00″–4°37′00″ E, evaluated the quality of sediments in two streams draining contrasting land-use areas. Okoko stream, which is a tributary of the Osun River, runs through a densely-populated area divided into Residential/Commercial area (RCA) and Industrial area (IA). Okoko stream runs through markets, business districts, auto-repair shops and along/across highways in the city centre. Omu stream, another Osun River tributary, drains a sparsely-populated area (SPA) in the outskirts of Osogbo Metropolis (Fig. 2). RCA covers Ayepe—Tanisin areas, IA covers Testing Ground—Power Line areas while SPA covers Coker Village area.
Peri-urban areas, such as RCA in this study, are usually a mixture of residential and commercial activities. This combined land use is particularly a feature of low-income areas where most individuals conduct commercial activities at or near their residences (Kolawole et al., 2023). These activities include indiscriminate dumping and incineration of waste, blacksmithing/metal welding, automobile repair and painting, etc. IA is characterised by the presence of Nigerian Machine Tools, a Foundry where industrial and agricultural machines and machine parts were manufactured until 2007. The area is also characterised by low-scale metal scrapping and sorting activities. SPA, on the other hand, has agricultural activities such as farming and animal husbandry as the major land use.
Sample collection
A total of forty (40) stream sediment samples were obtained from 0–20 cm depth at the beds of active streams using a stainless-steel shovel and transported in labeled polyethylene bags to the laboratory. While sampling stations were predetermined during desk study using satellite imagery of the study area, sampling on the field was modified and done based on accessibility to the streams. At points where tributary confluences occurred, samples were collected just before and after the confluence. A total of twenty-nine samples were collected from Okoko stream while eleven samples were collected from Omu stream (Fig. 2), based on accessibility and stream lengths.
Sample preparation and analysis
The stream sediments were air-dried, disaggregated and sieved to obtain the < 75 micron fraction in the Geochemistry laboratory of the Department of Geological Sciences, Osun State University, Osogbo. Physico-chemical properties such as pH, total carbon (TC) and total organic matter (OM) content were also done. To determine the pH of the stream sediments, the pH meter was calibrated with buffer solutions 4, 7 and 9. 1 g of sample was weighed into a 50 ml glass beaker, 10 ml of distilled water was added, and the solution agitated for few minutes. The supernatant was decanted into a 20 ml tube. The pH meter probe was inserted into the decanted solution, and the pH value read.
For organic carbon (OC) content determination, 0.5 g of air-dried sample was weighed into a conical refluxing flask and 10 ml of standard K2Cr2O7 solution was added. 15 ml of concentrated H2SO4 was added and the refluxing flask was connected to a condenser. This was refluxed for 60 min, cooled and rinsed with distilled water. After, this was titrated against standard Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H2O (FAS) in the presence of ferroin indicator from blue-green to violet-red. A blank was also analysed in the same way.
OC was calculated using the formula:
where:
C = Conc. of K2Cr2O7.
V = Volume of K2Cr2O7 used (10 ml).
W = Weight of Sample (g).
V1 = Volume of FAS used to titrate sample.
V2 = Volume of FAS used to titrate blank.
The organic matter (OM) content was calculated using the relation:
The sieved samples were analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES), to determine the concentration of Fe, Co, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, Sr and Zn, at ALS Canada Laboratory Ltd., Vancouver. 0.50 g of stream sediment was digested with aqua regia for 45 min in a graphite heating block. After cooling, the resulting solution was diluted to 12.5 ml with deionized water, mixed and analyzed by ICP-AES.
Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC)
Standard reference materials such as EMOG17, MRGeo08, OREAS 906 and OREAS 45 h were used for quality assurance and quality control measures. Blanks and pulp duplicates were also analysed, while the intensities of the measured pulses were compared with the standards and the analytical results were corrected for inter-element spectral interference. The lower detection limits for Fe, Co, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, Sr and Zn were 0.01 (%), 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1 and 2 mg/kg, respectively.
Data analysis
Statistical evaluation using the Pearson’s Correlation and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were done on the geochemical data obtained using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software (Čakmak et al., 2020). The Pearson’s Correlation analysis tests the strength of the association between two random variables and it is used to describe observed geochemical distribution and associations (Olatunji & Abimbola, 2010). PCA groups relate variables into principal associations known as components on the basis of their mutual correlation coefficients (Asaah et al., 2006). The components obtained are related to actual processes influencing the geochemistry of the stream sediments.
Indices for the assessment of stream sediment quality
Calculation of geochemical and ecological indices can be applied to most chemical elements and to several geomaterials. The quality of the stream sediments was assessed with parameters such as Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo), Pollution Index (PI) and Ecological Risk Factor (Er) and Index (ERI). These were calculated to evaluate the degree of possible contamination and pollution in the stream sediments. Sediment quality indices have been widely used to determine significant impact of metals on the environment (Fakayode & Olu-Owolabi, 2003; Loska et al., 2004; Gbadebo and Bankole 2007; Odewande & Abimbola, 2008; Akinade & Olisa, 2014; Odukoya, 2015; and Olatunji & Ajayi, 2016). The background value used for calculation is the Average Shale Content (ASC) prescribed by Turekian and Wedepohl (1961).
Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo)
The degree of metal contamination in the stream sediments was determined using the six classes of geo-accumulation index proposed by Muller (1981) ranging from practically uncontaminated to extremely contaminated, using the equation:
where;
Igeo is the index of geoaccumulation,
Cn is the measured concentration of metal in the stream sediments,
Bn is the background value of the metal (i.e. ASC),
1.5 is a constant used as a correcting factor for the variation in lithogenic effects.
Pollution index (PI)
The Pollution Index was used to determine the level of pollution of the areas studied by the PHEs, using the relation proposed by Nemerow, 1991:
where PI is Pollution Index.
CFAverage is average value of contamination factors.
CFMax. is maximum contamination factor value.
The various thresholds for contamination and pollution are highlighted in Supplementary Material A1, while calculated CF values are presented in Supplementary Material A2.
Ecological indices
Ecological risk factor (Er) (Hakanson, 1980) refers to the risk posed to living organisms by the presence of anthropogenically-introduced metals in the sediments of the streams. The sum of the individual risk factors is termed the potential ecological risk index (ERI). Er and ERI are calculated using the equations:
where, Er is the ecological risk factor,
Tr is the toxicity response of individual metals: Co (5), Cr (2), Cu (5), Ni (6), Pb (5), Sr (2), Zn (1) (Hakanson, 1980; Xie et al., 2016).
ERI is the risk index, and.
\(\sum_{\text{i}=1}^{7}\text{Er}\) is the sum of calculated risk factors.
The levels of Ecological Risk are presented in Supplementary Material A3.
Results and discussion
Physico-chemical properties
The pH values for stream sediments from RCA revealed they are slightly acidic; with TC and OM content averaging 3.9% and 6.7%, respectively. Stream sediments from IA were acidic to slightly acidic and had average TC and OM values of 3.4% and 5.9%, respectively. Though SPA stream sediments were also acidic to slightly acidic, they had higher TC and OM concentrations of 6.2% and 10.6%, respectively (Table 1). Acidity of environmental media facilitates element mobility and bioavailability (Kolawole et al., 2023; Pavlović et al., 2021); implying that the PHEs in the sediments from the streams will be readily mobile and bioavailable. Using the average pH values of the sediments from the streams in the three zones, PHE mobility and bioavailability is expected to be in the order RCA < IA < SPA. The dominance of Agricultural activities in SPA explains the higher average OM content. This is as a result of the extensive use of fertilizers to achieve improved crop yield. Animal dung, which is rich in OM, is also a contributing factor as some cattle grazing is done in the zone (Bakayoko et al., 2009; Guo et al., 2016).
PHEs concentration in the stream sediments
Sediments from streams are representative of the quality of the environment from which they are derived. Therefore, PHE contamination in the sediments can serve as a valuable indicator of contamination in the source-areas of the sediments. The summary of concentrations of the PHEs in the sediments is presented in Table 2 and Fig. 3. As and Hg concentrations were below detection limit (BDL) of the analytical instrument used, while that of Cd was preponderantly BDL. Mean Zn concentration exceeded the ASC value in the three land use areas, mean Pb concentration exceeded ASC values in RCA and IA, while mean Cu concentration was above ASC value in RCA. The mean value of Co surpassed the ASC value in SPA (Table 2) while the concentrations of Cr, Ni and Sr were below ASC value in all locations sampled.
The mean PHE concentrations of the studied stream sediments were compared with other studies from southwestern Nigeria. The concentration of the PHEs in stream sediments of Ikorodu (Odukoya & Akande, 2015) were lower that of the study while the stream sediments in Ile-Ife (Asowata & Akinwumiju, 2020) had higher concentrations of the PHEs compared to the study, except Pb. Compared with stream sediments of Osogbo, the Ijebu-Ode stream sediments (Akinade & Olisa, 2014) had lower concentrations of all the PHEs except Cr. When compared with stream sediments in Ibadan (Kolawole et al., 2022), the stream sediments studied had lower concentrations of all the PHEs except Cr. The studied stream sediments had higher concentrations of all the PHEs when compared with stream sediments of Orle, Niger-Delta area of Nigeria (Adepoju & Adekoya, 2013) (Table 3).
The mean concentrations of Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the studied stream sediments were less than sediments in Xiangjiang, China (Huang et al., 2020). While the concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn in sediments of Osogbo streams were higher than those of Cameroon and Tunisia, they both had Ni values higher than those of the sediments of Osogbo (Table 3).
Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo)
A summary of the calculated Igeo for the stream sediments studied is presented in Table 4 and Fig. 4. There was no Co, Cr, Ni and Sr contamination in the stream sediments from RCA. However, moderate contamination of Cu were detected in SS7 and SS8A, moderate to heavy Pb contamination in SS3 and SS5–SS8, and moderate to heavy Zn contamination in SS4, SS5 and SS7. Activities which characterise the locations with moderate Cu include waste dumping and incineration, along with household waste-water discharge into stream channels. Locations where moderate to heavy Pb and Zn contamination were detected were characterised by intense vehicular traffic, automobile repair, blacksmithing, and waste dumping/incineration. These activities are established contributors of these PHEs to the environment (Kolawole et al., 2022, 2023).
Stream sediments from IA had no Cr, Cu, Ni and Sr contamination, none to moderate Co and Pb contamination, while moderate to heavy contamination of Zn was detected in some samples. SS17 and SS28 where moderate to heavy Zn contamination was detected were taken from locations characterised by intense vehicular traffic, household waste dumping and incineration, and welding activities. Wear and tear of vehicle parts, vehicular exhaust and non-exhaust emissions, and welding activities are sources of PHEs in the environment (Aslam et al., 2013; Kolawole et al., 2022, 2023; Nawrot et al., 2020). While there was no contamination of Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Sr in the stream sediments of SPA, moderate contamination of Co and Zn were detected in some locations. SS33 had moderate Zn contamination while moderate Co contamination was detected in SS36, SS37 and SS39. All the SPA samples were taken from locations with intense agricultural activities and occasional cattle grazing. Co and Zn are key ingredients in the manufacture of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers (Mortvedt & Gilkes, 1993; Defarge et al., 2018; Liu et al. 2020; Alengebawy et al. 2021).
Pollution index (PI)
Results of calculated PI for the studied areas showed that stream sediments of RCA are extremely polluted (PI value = 3.49), those of IA are moderately polluted (PI value = 1.37) while the sediments in SPA are slightly polluted (PI value = 0.94) (Fig. 5). The moderate to heavy contamination of Cu, Pb and Zn in the stream sediments of RCA is thought to be responsible for the overall classification of the stream sediments as extremely polluted. The moderate pollution of stream sediments in IA is also believed to be caused by moderate Pb and Zn contamination. However, only moderate Zn contamination was detected in stream sediments of SPA (Table 4).
Ecological risk
The calculated Er values for the sediments of the streams reveal that all the PHEs had values less than 30 across the land-use areas. This indicated that each PHE evaluated poses low potential ecological risk. The PHE which had the highest Er value across the land-use areas was Pb, with 23.5, 5.5 and 5.0 for RCA, IA and SPA, respectively. This would have arisen from the relatively high toxicity response value of Pb (i.e. 5). The overall ecological risk across the three land-use areas for all the PHEs (i.e. ERI) also revealed a low-risk index (Table 5, Fig. 6).
Evaluation of sources of PHEs in the stream sediments
To identify the possible sources of the PHEs, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used (Borůvka et al., 2005; Pavlović et al., 2017). Four Principal Components (PC) having a cumulative variance of ca. 88% were calculated for the PHEs. PC 1 accounted for ca. 27% of total variance and contained Cu (0.92), Pb (0.88) and Sr (0.64). PC 2 which was heavily loaded with Fe (0.90) and Co (0.93) accounted for ca. 26% of total variance, while PC 3 accounted for ca. 20% variance and contained Cr (0.93) and Ni (0.78). PC 4 contained only Zn (0.90) and accounted for ca. 15% of total variance (Table 6).
An anthropogenic origin is adduced for the occurrence of Cu, Pb and Sr in PC1. These metals are common components of automobile parts/paints, blacksmithing/welding activities, waste dumping (especially e-waste) and incineration. These activities are common in RCA and IA. Cu and Pb are common by-products of vehicular emissions, while Sr is used as a flux in welding/blacksmithing (Kozyrev et al., 2018; Kryukov et al., 2017). Fe, which is believed to be sourced from the Foundry activities and minor metal scrapping/sorting in IA, often serves as an adsorbing site for other metals like Cr, Ni, Co, etc. (Kolawole et al., 2022). This explains its relationship with Co, which could result from waste combustion and vehicular traffic. Co is also a component of agrochemicals used in agriculture (Defarge et al., 2018; Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry [ATSDR], 2019; Mahey et al., 2020). Some farming activities were observed in parts of IA. SPA in the study area is characterised by intensive agricultural activities. Cr and Ni, having close geochemical affinity, are from geogenic contributions. They are trace components associated with mafic rocks, and enclaves of amphibolite have been reported in the area. Zn is very commonly used in the automotive industry, as components of car parts. Therefore the wear and tear, and corrosion of car parts will yield Zn (Fomba et al., 2018; Kolawole et al., 2023). Zn is also a component of agrochemicals (Alengebawy et al. 2021).
A further representation of the relationship and linkage between the PHEs is illustrated by the loading plot (Fig. 7a) and dendogram (Fig. 7b), respectively. The loading plot shows a clustering of PHEs into: Cr and Ni, Fe and Co, and Cu, Pb, Sr and Zn. The Cr–Ni cluster corresponds to the PHE association in PC3, the Fe–Co cluster tallies with the association in PC2, while Cu–Pb–Sr are associations in PC1. The inclusion of Zn in this cluster, especially its link with Sr in the dendogram, could result from the fact that Sr–Zn alloys are used for anti-corrosion protection in welding processes (Gad et al., 2022).
Co, Cu, Pb and Zn, which are the contaminants in the stream sediments, are harmful to humans when they enter the body and accumulate to toxic levels. Health effects such as kidney necrosis, liver cirrhosis and gastrointestinal problems are caused by Cu toxicity (Fraga, 2005; Uriu-Adams & Keen, 2005). Apart from being a known carcinogen, Pb toxicity has effects such as damage to the nervous system, and cognitive decline, learning and behavioural problems in children. Pb toxicity also causes hypertension and kidney dysfunction (Onianwa and Fakayode 2000; Mason et al., 2014; Olajide-Kayode et al., 2023). More than necessary Zn concentrations in the human body causes diarrhoea, lethargy, and elevated risk of prostate cancer (Chasapis et al., 2020). Health effects of Co toxicity include lung fibrosis, asthma attacks and thyroid problems (Leyssens et al., 2017).
Conclusion
The stream sediments of RCA were slightly acidic, while those of IA and SPA were acidic—sightly acidic. The OM content of stream sediments in the zones were relatively high, and in the order: RCA < IA < SPA.
All sediment quality indices used revealed moderate Cu, Pb and Zn contamination in stream sediments of RCA, while Pb and Zn contamination were detected in IA stream sediments. In SPA however, the stream sediments were mostly contaminated with Co and Zn. The dense population and associated anthropogenic activities in RCA and IA is responsible for the Cu, Pb and Zn contamination. This has led to the extreme and moderate pollution of RCA and IA stream sediments, respectively. Though Agriculture is believed to be a low contributor to environmental contamination, it was observed that the use of agrochemicals and cattle grazing led to increased Co and Zn concentrations in the stream sediments of SPA. This led to the classification of the sediments as slightly polluted even though the zone is very sparsely populated. The use of inorganic fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides with potential uptake of those metals by field crops, poses major threat to animals and humans through the food chain (Costa, 2000; Zeng et al., 2011). The dung of animals has also been proven to contain certain PHEs such as Co, Cu, Se and Zn (Gupta et al., 2016; Sheppard & Sanipelli, 2012). Animal dung, either as animal waste or as manure, can also contribute these elements to environmental media, albeit in minimal to moderate concentrations.
Though the ecological risk of the stream sediments posed by the PHEs is currently low, activities that would increase the PHE concentration in them must be avoided, in order to mitigate risk. Periodic environmental monitoring is also recommended, to evaluate the status of stream sediments and other media in the areas investigated.
Data availability
All inquiries on data to be sent to jolugbn@gmail.com or jerry.olajide-kayode@uniosun.edu.ng.
References
Adepoju, M. O., & Adekoya, J. A. (2013). Heavy metal distribution and assessment in stream sediments of River Orle Southwestern Nigeria. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 7(2), 743–756. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-013-0845-1
Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry (2019). Toxicological Profile for Cobalt - Potential for Human Exposure. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp33-c5.pdf (Assessed on 19 February 2024 at 10:47).
Akinade, S. O., & Olisa, O. (2014). Geochemical study of soils, road dust and stream sediments around Ijebu-Ode, Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Environmental & Analytical Toxicology, 4, 229. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0525.1000229
Al-Edresy, M. A. M., Wasel, S. O., & Al-Hagibi, H. A. (2019). Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in coastal sediments between Al-Haymah and Al-Mokha, south red sea Yemen. International Journal of Hydrology, 3(2), 159–173.
Alengebawy, A., Abdelkhalek, S. T., Qureshi, S. R., & Wang, M. (2021). Heavy metals and pesticides toxicity in agricultural soil and plants: ecological risks and human health implications. Toxicx, 9(3), 42. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9030042
Asaah, V. A., Abimbola, F. A., & Suh, C. E. (2006). Heavy metal concentrations and distribution in surface soils of the Bassa Industrial Zone 1, Douala, Cameroon. The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 31(2A), 147–158.
Aslam, J., Khan, S. A., & Khan, S. H. (2013). Heavy metals contamination in roadside soil near different traffic signals in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 17(3), 315–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jscs.2011.04.015
Asowata, I. T., & Akinwumiju, A. S. (2020). Assessment of potentially harmful elements in foodplain soils and stream sediments in Ile-Ife area South-Western Nigeria. SN Applied Sciences, 2, 1506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03286-w
Bahloul, M., Baati, H., Amdouni, R., & Azri, C. (2018). Assessment of heavy metals contamination and their potential toxicity in the surface sediments of Sfax Solar Saltern Tunisia. Environmental Earth Sciences, 77, 27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7227-7
Bakayoko, S., Soro, D., Nindjin, C., Dao, D., Tschannen, A., Girardin, O., & Assa, A. (2009). Effects of Cattle and Poultry manures on organic matter content and adsorption complex of a sandy soil under cassava cultivation (Manihot esculenta Crantz.). African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 3(8), 190–197.
Borůvka, L., Vacek, O., & Jehlička, J. (2005). Principal component analysis as a tool to indicate the origin of potentially toxic elements in soils. Geoderma, 128, 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.04.010
Čakmak, D., Perović, V., Kresović, M., Pavlović, D., Pavlović, M., Mitrović, M., & Pavlović, P. (2020). Sources and a health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in dust at children’s playgrounds with artifcial surfaces: A case study in Belgrade. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-019-00702-0
Castro, M. F., Almeida, C. A., Bazán, C., Vidal, J., Delfini, C. D., & Villegas, L. B. (2021). Impact of anthropogenic activities on an urban river through a comprehensive analysis of water and sediments. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(28), 37754–37767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13349-z
Chakrapani, G. J. (2002). Water and sediment geochemistry of major Kumaun Himalayan lakes, India. Environmental Geology, 43, 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-002-0613-0
Chasapis, C. T., Ntoupa, P.-S.A., Spiliopoulou, C. A., & Stefanidou, M. E. (2020). Recent aspects of the effects of zinc on human health. Archives of Toxicology, 94, 1443–1460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-020-02702-9
Cheng, H., Li, L., Zhao, C., Li, K., Peng, M., Qin, A., & Cheng, X. (2014). Overview of trace metals in the urban soil of 31 metropolises in China. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 139, 31–52.
Christophoridis, C., Bourliva, A., Evgenakis, E., Papadopoulou, L., & Fytianos, A. (2019). Effects of anthropogenic activities on the levels of heavy metals in marine surface sediments of the Thessaloniki Bay, Northern Greece: Spatial distribution, sources and contamination assessment. Microchemical Journal, 149, 104001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2019.104001
Costa, M. (2000). Chromium and nickel. In R. K. Zalups & J. Koropatnick (Eds.), Molecular biology and toxicology of metals (pp. 113–114). Taylor and Francis.
Defarge, N., Spiroux de Vendômois, J., & Séralini, G. E. (2018). Toxicity of formulants and heavy metals in glyphosate-based herbicides and other pesticides. Toxicology Reports, 5, 156–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2017.12.025
Dragović, R., Gajić, B., Dragović, S., Đorđević, M., Đorđević, M., Mihailović, N., & Onjia, A. (2014). Assessment of the impact of geographical factors on the spatial distribution of heavy metals in soils around the steel production facility in Smederevo (Serbia). Journal of Cleaner Production, 84, 550–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.03.060
Fajemila, O. T., Martínez-Colón, M., Spangenberg, J. E., & Spezzaferri, S. (2022). Organic matter source and distribution in the estuarine Apapa-Badagry Creek, Nigeria: Implications for living (stained) benthic foraminiferal assemblage. Marine Micropaleontology, 172, 102112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marmicro.2022.102112
Fakayode, S. O., & Olu-Owolabi, B. I. (2003). Heavy metal contamination of roadside Topsoil in Osogbo, Nigeria: Its relationship to traffic density and proximity to highways. Environmental Geology, 44, 150–157.
Fomba, K. W., van Pinxteren, D., Muller, K., Spindler, G., & Herrmann, H. (2018). Assessment of trace metal levels in size-resolved particulate matter in the area of Leipzig. Atmospheric Environment, 176, 60–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.12.024
Fraga, C. G. (2005). Relevance, essentiality and toxicity of trace elements in human health. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 26(4–5), 235–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.013
Gad, S. M., Emad, S., Zhou, X., Lyon, S. B., Jin, Z., & Dagwa, I. M. (2022). Effectiveness of strontium zinc phosphosilicate on the corrosion protection of AA2198-T851 aluminium alloy in sodium chloride solution. Corrosion Science, 209, 110725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2022.110725
Gbadebo, A. M., & Bankole, O. D. (2007). Analysis of potentially toxic metals in airborne cement dust around Sagamu, Southwest, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science, 7, 35–40. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2007.35.40
Guo, L., Wu, G., Li, Y., Li, C., Liu, W., Meng, J., Liu, H., Yu, X., & Jiang, G. (2016). Effects of cattle manure compost combined with chemical fertilizer on topsoil organic matter, bulk density and earthworm activity in a wheat–maize rotation system in Eastern China. Soil and Tillage Research, 156, 140–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2015.10.010
Guo, W., Liu, X., Liu, Z., & Li, G. (2010). Pollution and potential ecological risk evaluation of heavy metals in the sediments around Dongjiang Harbor, Tianjin. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 2, 729–736.
Gupta, K. K., Aneja, K. R., & Rena, D. (2016). Current status of cow dung as a bioresource for sustainable development. Bioresource and Bioprocessing, 3, 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-016-0105-9
Hakanson, L. (1980). An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control a sedimentological approach. Water Research, 14(8), 975–1001.
Harikumar, P. S., Nasir, U. P., & Rahman, M. P. M. (2009). Distribution of heavy metals in the core sediments of a tropical wetland system. International Journl of Environmental Science and Technology, 6(2), 225–232.
https://www.nigeriamachinetools.com/ (Accessed on 14 June 2023 at 11:45).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osogbo (Accessed on 14 June 2023 at 11:45).
Huang, Z., Liu, C., Zhao, X., Dong, J., & Zheng, B. (2020). Risk assessment of heavy metals in the surface sediment at the drinking water source of the Xiangjiang river in South China. Environmental Sciences Europe, 32, 23–31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-020-00305-w
Kirpichtchikova, T. A., Manceau, A., Spadini, L., Panfili, F., Marcus, M. A., & Jacquet, T. (2006). Speciation and solubility of heavy metals in contaminated soil using X-ray microfluorescence, EXAFS spectroscopy, chemical extraction, and thermodynamic modeling. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 70(9), 2163–2190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.02.006
Kolawole, T. O., Ajibade, O. M., Olajide-Kayode, J. O., Jimoh, M. T., Fomba, K. W., Anifowose, A. J., & Akinde, S. B. (2023). Contamination and risk surveillance of potentially toxic elements in different land-use urban soils of Osogbo, Southwestern Nigeria. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 45, 4602–4629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01518-7
Kolawole, T. O., Olatunji, A. S., Jimoh, M. T., & Fajemila, O. T. (2018). Heavy metal contamination and ecological risk assessment in soils and sediments of an industrial area in Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Health Pollution, 8(19), 180906. https://doi.org/10.5696/2156-9614-8.19.180906
Kolawole, T. O., Oyelami, C. A., Olajide-Kayode, J. O., & Fomba, K. W. (2022). Level, distribution, ecological, and human health risk assessment of heavy metals in soils and stream sediments around a used-automobile spare part market in Nigeria. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 45, 1573–1598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01283-z
Kozyrev, N. A., Kryukov, R. E., Usol’tsev, A. A., Prokhorenko, O. D., & Aimatov, V. G. (2018). Quality of the seam in welding under flux by means of barium-strontium carbonatite. Steel in Translation, 48, 82–86. https://doi.org/10.3103/S0967091218020092
Kryukov, R. E., Kozyrev, N. A., & Usoltsev, A. A. (2017). Use of barium-strontium carbonatite for flux welding and surfacing of mining machines. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 84, 012024. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/84/1/012024
Leyssens, L., Vinck, B., Van Der Straeten, C., Wuyts, F., & Maes, L. (2017). Cobalt toxicity in humans—A review of the potential sources and systemic health effects. Toxicology, 387, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2017.05.015
Liu, D. Y., Zhang, W., Liu, Y. M., Chen, X. P., & Zou, C. Q. (2020). Soil application of Zinc Fertilizer increases Maize yYield by enhancing the Kernel Number and Kernel Weight of inferior grains. Frontier in Plant Science, 11, 188. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00188
Loska, K., Wiechulab, D., & Korus, I. (2004). Metal contamination of farming soils affected by industry. Environment International, 30, 159–165.
Mahey, S., Kumar, R., Sharma, M., Kumar, V., & Bhardwaj, R. (2020). A critical review on toxicity of cobalt and ts bioremediation strategies. SN Applied Sciences, 2(7), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3020-9
Mandeng, E. P. B., Bidjeck, L. M. B., Bessa, A. Z. E., Ntomb, Y. D., Wadjou, J. W., Doumo, E. P. E., & Dieudonne, L. B. (2019). Contamination and risk assessment of heavy metals, and uranium of sediments in two watersheds in Abiete-Toko gold district Southern Cameroon. Heliyon, 5, e02591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02591
Mason, L. H., Harp, J. P., & Han, D. Y. (2014). Pb neurotoxicity: Neuropsychological effects of lead toxicity. Biomedical Research International, 2014, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/840547
Mortvedt, J.J., & Gilkes, R.J. (1993). Zinc Fertilizers. In: Robson, AD (Ed), Zinc in Soils and Plants. Developments in plant and soil sciences, Vol 55. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0878-2_3.
Muller, G. (1981). The heavy metal pollution of the sediments of Neckars and its tributary: A stocktaking. Chemiker Zeitung, 105, 157–164.
Nawrot, N., Wojciechowska, E., Rezania, S., Walkusz-Miotk, J., & Pazdro, K. (2020). The effects of urban vehicle traffic on heavy metal contamination in road sweeping waste and bottom sediments of retention tanks. Science of the Total Environment, 749, 141511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141511
Nemerow, N. L. (1991). Stream, Lake, Estuary, and Ocean Pollution (2nd ed.). Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Odewande, A. A., & Abimbola, A. F. (2008). Contamination indices and heavy metal concentrations in urban soil of Ibadan Metropolis, Southwestern Nigeria. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 30, 243–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-007-9112-2
Odukoya, A. M. (2015). Contamination assessment of toxic elements in the soil within and around two dumpsites in Lagos Nigeria. Ife Journal of Science, 17(2), 351–361.
Odukoya, A. M., & Akande, O. (2015). Metal contamination assessment in the urban stream sediments and tributaries of coastal area southwest Nigeria. Chinese Journal of Geochemistry, 34(3), 431–446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11631-014-0027-1
Okunola, O. W., & Olatunji, A. S. (2017). Geochemical assessment and speciation of metals in sediments of Osun and Erinle Rivers Southwestern Nigeria. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 10, 366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-3110-1
Olajide-Kayode, J. O., Kolawole, T. O., Oyaniran, O. O., Mustapha, S. O., & Olatunji, A. S. (2023). Potentially harmful element toxicity in geophagic clays consumed in parts of southeastern Nigeria. Journal of Trace Elements and Minerals, 4, 100050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemin.2023.100050
Olatunji, A. S., & Abimbola, A. F. (2010). Geochemical evaluation of the Lagos Lagoon sediments and water. World Applied Sciences Journal, 9(2), 178–193.
Olatunji, A. S., & Ajayi, F. (2016). Potentially toxic contamination of cultivated wetlands in Lagos Nigeria. Journal of Health and Pollution, 6(10), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.5696/2156-9614-6.10.9
Olatunji, A. S., Kolawole, T. O., Oloruntola, M., & Günter, G. (2018). Evaluation of Pollution of soils and particulate matter around metal recycling factories in Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Health and Pollution, 8, 20–30. https://doi.org/10.5696/2156-9614-8.17.20
Olatunji, A. S., Oyaniran, O. O., & Kolawole, T. O. (2022). The distribution of selected potentially toxic elements and their ecological risk assessment in parts of mainland Lagos, Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of International Medical Geologists Association-Nigeria, 1, 36–53.
Onianwa, P. C., & Fakayode, S. O. (2000). Lead contamination of topsoil and vegetation in the vicinity of a battery factory in Nigeria. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 22(3), 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026539531757
Owoade, K. O., Hopke, P. K., Olise, F. S., Adewole, O. O., Ogundele, L. T., & Fawole, O. G. (2015). Source apportionment analyses for fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM2.5–10) mode particulate matter (PM) measured in an urban area in southwestern Nigeria. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 7(5), 843–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.04.006
Pavlović, D., Pavlović, M., Perović, V., Mataruga, Z., Čakmak, D., Mitrović, M., & Pavlović, P. (2021). Chemical fractionation, environmental, and human health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in soil of industrialised urban areas in Serbia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, 9412. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179412
Pavlović, M., Pavlović, D., Kostić, O., Jarić, S., Čakmak, D., Pavlović, P., & Mitrović, M. (2017). Evaluation of urban contamination with trace elements in city parks in Serbia using pine (Pinus nigra Arnold) needles, bark and urban topsoil. International Journal of Environmental Research, 11, 625–639.
Phillips, O. A., & Fajemila, O. T. (2024). Contamination levels of potentially toxic elements within the Ogun River estuary sediments, southwest Nigeria: Ecological and human health risk assessments. Journal of Trace Elements and Minerals, 8, 100120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemin.2024.100120
Sathawara, N. G., Parikh, D. J., & Agarwal, Y. K. (2004). Essential heavy metals in environmental samples from western India. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-004-0490-1
Sheppard, C., & Sanipelli, B. (2012). Trace elements in feed, manure, and manured soils. Journal of Environmental Quality, 41(6), 1846–1856. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2012.0133
Siddiquee, N. A., Parween, S., Quddus, M. M. A., & Barua, P. (2012). Heavy Metal Pollution in Sediments at Ship Breaking Area of Bangladesh. Coastal Environments Focus on Asian Regions. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3002-3_6
Turekian, K. K., & Wedepohl, K. H. (1961). Distribution of the elements in some major units of the Earth’s Crust. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 72, 175–192. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1961)72[175:DOTEIS]2.0.CO;2
Uriu-Adams, J. Y., & Keen, C. L. (2005). Copper, oxidative stress, and human health. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 26, 268–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.015
Xie, Z. L., Jiang, Y. H., Zhang, H., Wang, D., Qi, S. H., Du, Z. B., & Zhang, H. (2016). Assessing heavy metal contamination and ecological risk in Poyang Lake area. China. Environ. Earth Sci., 75, 549.
Zeng, F., Ali, S., Zhang, H., Ouyang, Y., Qiu, B., Wu, F., & Zhang, G. (2011). The influence of pH and organic matter content in paddy soil on heavy metal availability and their uptake by rice plants. Environmental Pollution, 159(1), 84–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.09.019
Acknowledgements
The constructive comments by the reviewers which improved the quality of the manuscript are well appreciated. Tosin Oyadele, Taiwo Aderemi, Vannessa Oparaugo, Basirat Ayinla, Omosalewa Ayoade, Aishah Adepoju, Emmanuel Oke and Aminat Gafar who all took part in the fieldwork are acknowledged.
Funding
This research received no funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Dr. Jerry O. Olajide-Kayode co-designed the research, took part in the fieldwork, curated the data, and wrote the manuscript. Dr. Tesleem O. Kolawole co-designed the research, took part in the field work and reviewed the manuscript. Dr. Olugbenga T. Fajemila took part in the manuscript review. Mr. Moyosoluwa O. Adeyemi partook in data curation and reviewed the manuscript. Mr. Oluwole E. Ajayi took part in the fieldwork and prepared the samples in the laboratory.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing/conflicting interests with the research or manuscript.
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
All contributing authors consent to their participation in the research/manuscript.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Olajide-Kayode, J.O., Kolawole, T.O., Fajemila, O.T. et al. Evaluating the quality of sediments in streams draining contrasting land-use areas in Osogbo metropolis, southwestern Nigeria. Environ Geochem Health 46, 301 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-024-02080-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-024-02080-6