Introduction

Underage drinking among African American youth remains a significant issue in the United States (Vidourek & King, 2010). According to the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), 63.2% of high school students have used alcohol with 54.4% of African American high school students having ever consumed alcohol (Frieden, Jaffe, Cono, Richards, & Iademarco, 2016). One in five (18.0%) African American students stated drinking alcohol before the age of 13 years second only to Hispanic youth (21.3%). Across the United States, 32.8% of youth report current alcohol use compared to 23.8% of African American students who currently drink alcohol (Frieden et al., 2016). A total of 11.4% of African American students have had five or more drinks of alcohol in a row compared to 17.7% of students overall.

Alcohol Use Differences Based on Demographic Factors

Multiple differences in alcohol use have been identified based on sex and grade level. African American females tend to have a higher prevalence than males of having ever consumed alcohol in their lifetime and the prevalence for current alcohol use tends to be higher for females than males (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2012). However, the prevalence for drinking alcohol before age of 13 years and drinking five or more drinks in a row tends to be higher among African American males. Grade level also makes an impact on underage alcohol use. The prevalence of ever having consumed alcohol tends to be much higher among 10th, 11th, and 12th grade students than among 9th graders (CDC, 2012; Johnston, O’Malley, Miech, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2017). This trend is the same for the prevalence of current alcohol use and having five or more drinks in a row. Seventh graders who have a higher number of friends who drink may be a particularly at-risk group for being influenced by peers (Weaver, Cheong, MacKinnon, & Pentz, 2011).

Consequences of Alcohol Use Among African American Youth

General population studies indicate that many harmful consequences are associated with youth alcohol abuse. Underage drinking has been associated with violence, injury, and HIV infection (CDC, 2016). Also, it has been estimated that 4500 deaths per year among adolescents in the United States have been related to excessive alcohol consumption (CDC, 2007). These deaths include homicides, motor-vehicle crashes, and suicide. Others problems that can occur due to underage drinking are unintentional injury, risky decision making, poor academic performance, and depression (CDC, 2016; Grunbaum et al., 2004; Maag & Irvin, 2005). Specific to African Americans, research indicates this population is at greater risk for many health conditions associated with alcohol use, including heart disease and cancer, and can also be subject to negative social consequences, including school expulsion and suspension due to alcohol use (Chartier & Caetano, 2010; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2008). Similarly, research indicates consequences of alcohol use may be greater for African American youth compared to their white counterparts (Zapolski, Pedersen, McCarthy, & Smith, 2014).

Risk and Protective Factors for Alcohol Use

Previous research indicates that several risk and protective factors are associated with underage drinking (Vidourek & King, 2010). Risk and protective factors exist within individual, family, peer, and community domains (Clark, Nguyen, & Belgrave, 2011). Specifically, within the family domain, risk factors, such as parental substance abuse, poor relationships between youth and parents, and youth perceptions of adult substance use, increase the likelihood of underage alcohol consumption (Bray, Adams, Getz, & Baer, 2001; O’Connell, Boat, & Warner, 2009). Other risk factors may include family conflict, poor management of family, poor family communication, sibling substance abuse, and poor parent–child bonding (Jenson & Fraser, 2006). The most powerful protective factor among African-American youth may be family (Clark et al., 2011; MacPhee, Lunkenheimer, & Riggs, 2015). Family may be a stronger predictor of substance abuse than peer pressure for African Americans compared to White youth (Wallace & Muroff, 2002). Protective factors may include having caring relationships with siblings and extended family, and being attached to parents (Boyd, Ashcraft, & Belgrave, 2006). Family connectedness and having a supportive family are associated with reduced alcohol use (Nasim, Belgrave, Corona, & Townsend, 2009; Resnick et al., 1997). Research also found that African American parents tend to be stricter than other parents towards alcohol use and also reported higher levels of supervision than their white parent counterparts, which can decrease the likelihood a youth will use alcohol (Johnson & Johnson, 1999; McMurtry, 2013).

Purpose of the Present Study

Studies focusing on specific parenting strategies that may reduce African American youth alcohol use are lacking. Limited information is available on authoritative parenting and other positive parenting practices among African American families and the relationship of such parenting to youth alcohol use. The proposed study seeks to examine alcohol use among African American youth and investigates the role of positive parenting practices on recent alcohol use. More specifically, the following research questions will be examined:

  1. (1)

    To what extent do African American students report experiencing specific parenting behaviors that are measured by the National Household Survey on Drug Use and Health?

  2. (2)

    Do specific parenting behaviors increase the risk of recent alcohol use among African American youth?

  3. (3)

    Does the impact of parenting behaviors on recent alcohol use among African American youth differ based on sex (males and females) and age category (12–13, 14–15, and 16–17 years old)?

Methods

Participants

For this study, 12–17 year old African American youth from all U.S States and the District of Columbia were the participants. They were recruited for the NSDUH by the Research Triangle Institute (RTI). The recruitment consisted of using multistage area probability sampling methods to select representative samples of U.S. non-institutionalized citizens. It was voluntary participation for all youth. If a child did not want to participate or if the parents did not want their child participating, the child was removed from the computer-assisted interview. All youth that participated in this study self-identified themselves as African American origin. The current study was granted approval by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Cincinnati.

Demographic Characteristics of Participants

A total of 2, African American youth participated in this study. Of those, 31.9% (n = 743) were 12–13 years old, 32.8% (n = 763) were 14–15 years old, and 35.3% (n = 822) were 16–17 years old. Sex was evenly distributed with 50.5% (n = 1176) being female and 49.5% (n = 1152) being male.

Procedures

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services sponsor the NSDUH. The computer-assisted interviews were administered in the youth participant’s households after being informed of the study purpose, survey was voluntary, responses were kept confidential, and of the importance of providing honest and accurate answers. Professional RTI interviews (n = 665) made personal visits to the selected households prior to any participation. Once the households were selected, no substitutions were allowed for any reason to ensure NSHUD data represented multiple types of youth in the U.S. NSDUH samples are based on national data and are proportional to the general population. Interviewers may have asked one or two household residents to participate by completing the computer-assisted interview upon being asked a few general questions during the in-person household visit by the RTI interviewers. No household residents may have been asked to participate during the visit. Household participation was voluntary and no other household could have replaced the requested participants.

Both SAMHSA and RTI made a commitment to ensure that all responses were kept confidential. Responses were used only for statistical purposes and full names were never recorded or associated with answers given. When the computer-assisted interviews were completed, the data file was coded and sent electronically to the RTI the same day. Upon completion of the interview, participants were compensated with $30. Participants may have received a phone call or letter from RTI to verify RTI interviewers completed the interview in a professional manner. The purpose of this was to establish a quality control measure. Youth from 12 to 17 years old who self-identified themselves as African American were included in the analysis of this study. The study was granted approval from the Institutional Review Board.

Whether or not youth knew anything about alcohol use, participants were still asked to participate. Both English and Spanish versions of the NSDUH survey were available to complete. If the Spanish version was chosen, a certified bilingual interpreter administered it. Both versions had the same content. Interviewers did not know the answers entered because most participants answered their questions in private and entered their responses directly into a laptop computer. Prior computer skills were not needed to participate. Interviewers read the questions aloud and entered the responses given into the laptop computer for some items. When the computer-assisted interview had been tested for validity and reliability, the results showed that it has percent agreements of greater than 80% on most variables (Chromy et al., 2009; Fendrich, Johnson, Sudman, Wislar, & Spiehler, 1999; Gfroerer, Eyerman, & Chromy, 2002). In addition, the survey has been edited carefully to ensure high internal consistency of the alcohol and drug use variables.

Instrument

In the current study, a secondary data analysis of the 2012 NSDUH was conducted. The U.S. Federal Government designed the NSDUH instrument to provide nationwide annual data on alcohol use behaviors among youth 12 years of age and older. There were three NSDUH survey sections/items used in this study: (1) personal/family information; (2) alcohol use; (3) authoritative parenting.

Statistical Imputation of NSDUH

Statistical imputation was used to substitute any missing or ambiguous data. In NSDUH, core alcohol and drug use variables are imputation-revised by the NSUDH research team. Recent alcohol use, used in the present study, is recoded based on the imputation core alcohol variables. The imputed variables serve as the starting point for the recoded alcohol variables. Within these variables, missing variables are imputed to replace missing values with non-missing values using logically assigned or imputation-revised procedures.

Recent Alcohol Use

To evaluate overall alcohol use, all participants were required to complete one item if they had used alcohol, (1) within the last 30 days, (2) more than 30 days but within the last year, (3) more than a year ago, or (4) never used alcohol. Recent alcohol use was defined for the study as the first category, which was having used alcohol within the last 30 days of taking the survey.

Authoritative Parenting Practices

Located in the Youth Experiences section of the survey was the Authoritative Parenting subscale, which consisted of seven items about parents. These included biological parents, adoptive parents, stepparents, or adult guardians who lived in their household. The definition of authoritative parenting is exerting high control and discipline with high responsiveness and warmth (Baumrind, 1971). Thus, the seven subscale items required the youth to rate how their parents performed these behaviors within the last year on a four point scale (1 = “always”; 2 = “sometimes”; 3 = “seldom”; 4 = “never”): (1) “How often did your parents check on whether you had done your homework during the past year?,” (2) “How often did your parents provide help with your homework during the past year?,” (3) “How often did your parents make you do chores around the house during the past year?,” (4) “How often did your parents limit the amount of time you watched T.V. during the past year?,” (5) “How often did your parents limit the amount of time you went out with friends on school nights during the past year?,” (6) “How often did your parents let you know when you’d done a good job during the past year?,” (7) “How often did your parents tell you they were proud of you for something you had done during the past year?”.

Data Analysis

All data analysis was computed with SPSS Version 23.0. Demographic characteristics were computed via frequency distributions, means, and standard deviations. Initially, Chi squares were computed to determine significant differences in the sample. Significant differences were found based on sex and age. Therefore, the impact of parenting on recent alcohol use for males, females, 12–13, 14–15, and 16–17 years olds was examined. Logistic regression analysis and multiple regression was computed to examine the research questions. To conduct the logistic regression and multiple regression analyses, parenting variables were recoded into always/sometimes and never/seldom. In addition, recent alcohol use was recoded into have used in past 30 days and have not used in past 30 days. The alpha level of significance was set at 0.05.

Results

Extent of Parenting Behaviors

Results indicated that 84.0% (n = 1752) reported parent checked if homework was completed whereas 16.0% (n = 334) reported parents did not check homework. Of participants, 80.5% (n = 1679) of youth reported parent helped them with homework during the past year compared to 19.5% (n = 408) with parents who did not help with homework. Regarding household chores, 91.7% (n = 2124) of youth report parents made youth do chores around the house compared to 8.3% (n = 192) of youth with parents who never/seldom made youth do chores. Approximately one in three (36.7%) (n = 849) of youth stated parents sometimes/always limited TV whereas 63.3% (n = 1465) stated parents never/seldom limited TV time. Concerning time out on a school night, 71.9% (n = 1488) of participants reported parents’ sometimes/always limited time out on a school night compared to 28.1% (n = 581) with parents who never/seldom limited time out. Concerning praise, 84.4% (n = 1955) of students reported parents told them they did a good job sometimes/always whereas 15.6% (n = 361) reported parents never/seldom told them they did a good job. Similarly, 85.9% (n = 1994) reported parents told them they are proud of them sometimes/always compared to 14.1% (n = 326) with parent who never/seldom told them they were proud of them.

Impact of Parenting Behaviors on Recent Alcohol Use

A logistic regression analysis indicated that specific parenting behaviors significantly increased the odds of recent alcohol use (Table 1) among participants. Specifically, students at highest risk for recent alcohol use were those with parents who: never/seldom (n = 68; 20.4%) check if homework is done versus always/sometimes (n = 134; 7.6%), never/seldom (n = 64; 15.7%) help with homework versus always/sometimes (n = 138; 8.2%), never/seldom (n = 25; 13.0%) make youth do chores around the house versus always/sometimes (n = 186; 8.8%), never/seldom (n = 168; 11.5%) limit amount of TV versus always/sometimes (n = 43; 5.1%), never/seldom (n = 85; 14.6%) limit time out on a school night versus always/sometimes (n = 117; 7.9%), never/seldom (n = 57;15.8%) tell youth they did a good job versus always/sometimes (n = 153; 7.8%), never/seldom (n = 47; 14.4%) tell youth they are proud of them versus always/sometimes (n = 163; 8.2%).

Table 1 Unadjusted odds ratios for the impact of parenting behaviors on recent alcohol use among African American students
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Impact of Parenting Behaviors on Recent Alcohol Use Based on Sex and Age

A series of logistic regression models were conducted for recent alcohol use based on sex and age. Results found significant differences regarding the impact of parenting behaviors on recent alcohol use for males and females (Table 2). Males at highest risk for recent alcohol use were those who had parents who never/seldom check if homework is done (n = 31; 22.5%) versus always/sometimes (n = 68; 7.6%), never/seldom help with homework (n = 28; 16.4%) versus always/sometimes (n = 71; 8.3%), never/seldom limit amount of TV (n = 84; 22.0%) versus always/sometimes (n = 19; 4.3%), never/seldom tell youth they did a good job (n = 26; 17.4%) versus always/sometimes (n = 77; 7.7%), and never/seldom tell youth they are proud of them (n = 20; 14.6%) versus always/sometimes (n = 83; 8.2%). For females, females at highest risk for recent alcohol use were participants with parents who never/seldom check if homework is done (n = 37; 18.9%) versus always/sometimes (n = 66; 7.7%), never/seldom (n = 36; 15.2%) help with homework versus always/sometimes (n = 67; 8.2%), never/seldom (n = 16; 14.8%) make youth do chores around the house versus always/sometimes (n = 92; 8.6%), never/seldom limit amount of TV (n = 84; 11.0%) versus always/sometimes (n = 24; 5.9%), never/seldom (n = 51; 16.1%) limit time out on a school night versus always/sometimes (n = 51; 7.0%), never/seldom (n = 31; 14.6%) tell youth they did a good job versus always/sometimes (n = 76; 7.9%), and never/seldom (n = 27; 14.3%) tell youth they are proud of them versus always/sometimes (n = 80; 8.1%).

Table 2 Unadjusted odds ratios for the impact of parenting behaviors on recent alcohol use among African American male and female students
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Similarly, additional logistic regression models were conducted based on age. Significant differences in recent alcohol use were found for 12–13, 14–15, and 16–17 year olds (Table 3) based on selected variables. For 12–13 year olds, participants with parents who never/seldom (n = 12; 3.3%) limit the amount of TV were more than three times more likely to report recent alcohol use compared to those with parent who always/sometimes (n = 4; 1.1%) limited TV. For 14–15 year olds, participants at highest risk for recent alcohol use were found to be participants with parents who never/seldom (n = 28; 25.0%) check if homework is done versus always/sometimes (n = 37; 6.3%), never/seldom (n = 19; 14.6%) help with homework versus always/sometimes (n = 46; 8.1%) never/seldom (n = 14; 20.0%) make youth do chores around the house versus always/sometimes (n = 55; 8.0%), never/seldom (n = 53; 10.6%) limit amount of TV versus always/sometimes (n = 16; 6.2%), never/seldom (n = 31; 16.3%) limit time out on a school night versus always/sometimes (n = 34; 6.8%), never/seldom (n = 22; 17.3%) tell youth they did a good job versus always/sometimes (n = 46; 7.3%), and never/seldom (n = 16; 14.0%) tell youth they are proud of them versus always/sometimes (n = 52; 8.1%). For 16–17 year olds, those at highest risk were participants with parents who never/seldom (n = 39; 21.9%) check if homework is done versus always/sometimes (n = 37; 6.3%), never/seldom (n = 44; 20.2%) help with homework versus always/sometimes (n = 78; 14.3%), never/seldom (n = 103; 17.2%) limit amount of TV versus always/sometimes (n = 23; 10.5%), and never/seldom (n = 31; 21.4%) tell them they are proud of them versus always/sometimes (n = 95; 14.1%).

Table 3 Unadjusted odds ratios for the impact of parenting behaviors on recent alcohol use among African American 12–13, 14–15, and 16–17 year old students
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Multiple Regression for Impact of Parenting Behaviors on Recent Alcohol Use Based on Sex and Age

Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the impact of parenting behaviors on recent alcohol use based on sex and age. Overall, the multiple regression model significantly predicted recent alcohol use (omnibus Chi square = 37.295, df = 7, p = .05). The model accounted for 37.0–74.0% of the variance in recent alcohol use. Specifically, African American youth at highest risk include those with parents who never/seldom check if homework is gone, never/seldom limit TV, and never/seldom limit time out on a school night (Table 4).

Table 4 Multiple regression for the impact of parenting behaviors on recent alcohol use among African American students
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For males, the multiple regression model significantly predicted recent alcohol use (omnibus Chi square = 40.483, df = 7, p < .001). The model accounted for 39.0–84.0% of the variance in recent alcohol use. Those at highest risk were those with parents who never/seldom check if homework is done and never/seldom limit the amount of TV, and never/seldom tell them they did a good job. For females, the multiple regression model significantly predicted recent alcohol use (omnibus Chi square = 37.295, df = 7, p = .05). The model accounted for 35.0–74.0% of the variance in recent alcohol use. Specifically, females at highest risk were those with parents who never/seldom check if homework is done and never/seldom limit time out on a school night (Table 5).

Table 5 Multiple regression for the impact of parenting behaviors on recent alcohol use among african american male and female students
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Regarding age, the multiple regression model did not significantly predict recent alcohol use for 12–13 year olds. For 14–15 year olds, the multiple regression model significantly predicted recent alcohol use (omnibus Chi square = 41.012, df = 7, p < .001). The model accounted for 5.8–12.7% of the variance in recent alcohol use. Those at highest risk were those with parents who never/seldom check if homework is done. For 16–17 year olds, the multiple regression model significantly predicted recent alcohol use (omnibus Chi square = 16.493, df = 7, p = .02). The model accounted for 2.2–3.7% of the variance in recent use (Table 6).

Table 6 Multiple regression for impact of parenting behaviors on recent alcohol use among African American 12–13, 14–15, and 16–17 year old students
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Discussion

The present study found a high percentage of African American youth reported having parents engaging in positive parenting practices. Parents are important factors in substance abuse prevention and as such attention on parenting practices is warranted. Previous research demonstrates that parent behavior can deter use among African American youth (Myers, 2013). This is consistent with the present study that found certain parenting practices were protective against recent alcohol use for African American youth. It is clear that positive parenting strategies are needed to prevent youth alcohol use.

Study findings indicate that youth with parents who did not practice positive parenting behaviors were at risk for recent alcohol use. In fact, youth were one and a half times to three times more likely to recently use alcohol if parents did not engage in positive parenting practices. The present study identified several key parenting strategies. Youth who reported parents did not assist with homework, praise them and setting rules regarding TV use and time out on school nights were at risk for alcohol use. Authoritative parenting, characterized as high demandingness and high responsiveness (Baumrind, 1971), is a parenting style associated with decreases in youth substance use (Steinberg, 2001). Previous studies have identified authoritative parenting as a protective facts for minority youth engagement in substance use (Merianos, King, Vidourek, & Nabors, 2015). Encouraging parents to engage in authoritative parenting is a crucial step in alcohol use prevention.

The present study found males were two to three times more likely to recently use alcohol if parents did not engage in positive parenting practices. Specifically, assisting with homework, limiting TV time, and praising youth were important factors. Females were approximately two times more likely to use alcohol if parents did not practice positive parenting behaviors. Interestingly, every parenting practice was significant. It may be that all practices are important for females whereas a few parenting practices resonate with male youth. Additionally, it may be critical to develop and implement practices that consider gender differences (Husler & Plancherel, 2006; Kashdan, Vetter, & Collins, 2005). For example, research indicates that low self-esteem and body image are risk factors for female substance use (Kumpulainen & Roine, 2002; Ramseyer Winter, Kennedy, & O’Neill, 2017). Perhaps, parenting behaviors can counteract individual risk factors while also boosting self-esteem and other variables that place females at risk. Further, gender neutral programs may not be as effective as interventions specifically targeting protective factors based on sex. Programs should be evaluated to determine the effectiveness based on sex to ensure program outcomes are being met.

Surprisingly, studying findings revealed only one significant difference for 12–13 year olds. African American youth were three times more likely to recently use alcohol if TV was not limited by parents. In the multiple regression model, parenting practices were not found to be significant for this age group. However, it is important to note that very few youth in that age group had yet to initiate alcohol use. Furthermore, positive parenting practices were limited to certain parenting behaviors and did not include additional characteristics of authoritative parenting such as parental warmth, monitoring, and communication. Previous research has identified communication between youth and parents regarding alcohol and drug use as deterrents to use among African American youth (Myers, 2013). Similarly, African American students with parents who talked about the dangers of substance use, set firm and clear rules against use, and punished students when rules against use were broken were found to be at decreased odds of recent alcohol use (Vidourek & King, 2010). It may be that these behaviors offer greater protection against recent alcohol use for younger students.

For 14–15 year olds, youth were approximately two to five times more likely to use if parents did not engage in positive parenting practices. This finding may indicate that 12–13 years of age to 14–15 years may be a time of transition and initiation of alcohol use. Previous research found older African American students were more likely than younger African American students to report recent alcohol use (Vidourek & King, 2010). In fact, recent alcohol use increased each year from 7th to 12th grade. Based on this, it may be an ideal time for additional prevention and a reminder to continue positive parenting practices as teens get older. Targeting parents of 12–13 year olds and providing educational and skills training to them may encourage them to continue using positive parenting practices as youth age.

Study findings revealed that 16–17 year olds were one and a half times more likely to use if parents did not practice positive parenting behaviors. This finding suggests that it is imperative for parents to continue practices strategies such as monitoring, offer praise and warmth, and checking on school work even with older children. Positive parenting practices offered a protective effect for this age group. Previous studies have revealed this age group spends less time with parent and family members and more time with peer groups (Bun Lam, McHale, & Crouter, 2014; Simpson, 2014; Simpson, 2001). It may be a concerted effort from parents is needed to continue positive parenting behaviors. Interestingly, additional research found having friends’ with parents who practice authoritative parenting was protective against youth substance use (Hussong, Jones, Stein, Baucom, & Boeding, 2011). Education should stress the need to continue these practices to protect kids from use even as they begin to reach emerging adulthood. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends a variety of strategies to continue positive development as a teen ages (CDC, 2017). Such strategies including continue to show interest in school and community activities, offer praise, spending time together and demonstrating affection.

Implications for Social Work Practice and Policy

The following study may be beneficial for social work practitioners. Based on study findings, it is clear youth have different needs for parenting practices based on sex and age. Social workers should examine client needs and act accordingly to incorporate needs into existing programming. Overall, research indicates positive parenting practices, such as authoritative parenting, decreases the likelihood youth will engage in substance use and increase the likelihood youth choose positive behaviors (Shakya, Christakis, & Fowler, 2012). In addition to providing parent education on youth substance use, incorporating authoritative parenting practices and other key positive parenting strategies into substance abuse prevention programs is warranted. To build parent self-efficacy, it may be beneficial to demonstrate and role play such practices. Research indicates a positive relationship between self-efficacy and parenting practices with youth engagement in healthy behaviors (Dumka, Gonzales, Wheeler, & Millsap, 2010; Hong, Peltzer, & Wimonpeerapattana, 2017).

Previous studies found that training parents on positive parenting practices can result in reduced alcohol and drug use among African American youth (Brody, Yu, Chen, Kogan, & Smith, 2012). The Strong African American Families program (Brody et al., 2006, 2011), which resulted in less youth substance use, trained parents on strong parenting skills including parental monitoring and nurturing. Similarly, another parenting education program aimed at African American parents resulted in greater levels of monitoring and reduced substance use (Beach et al., 2016). Clearly, parents play an important role in substance abuse prevention for African American youth. Study findings can continue to highlight critical parenting strategies in substance abuse prevention and provide guidance on which skills may need to be targeted with education and training.

Limitations

The following study limitation should be noted. Participants may have responded to survey items in socially desirable ways. Next, due to the cross-sectional nature of the data set, casual relationships cannot be determined. Also, positive parenting behaviors were limited to those included on the NSDUH questionnaire. In addition, study findings are limited to African American youth ages 12–17; thus, findings cannot be generalized other race/ethnicities or to other age groups.

Conclusion

Study findings demonstrate the importance of positive parenting practices across adolescence. It may be helpful to encourage parents to continue to engage in positive behaviors with older adolescents rather than relaxing certain parenting behaviors as children age. It is clear parents continue to have an impact as youth move toward adulthood. Additionally, examining other parenting variables such as whether or not parents discuss alcohol and drugs with their children are important steps in future research.