Abstract
Tunnels extend in large stretches with continuous lengths of up to hundreds of kilometers which are vulnerable to faulting in earthquake-prone areas. Assessing the interaction of soil and tunnel at an intersection with an active fault during an earthquake can be a beneficial guideline for tunnel design engineers. Here, a series of 4 centrifuge tests are planned and tested on continuous tunnels. Dip-slip surface faulting in reverse mechanism of 60-degree is modeled by a fault simulator box in a quasi-static manner. Failure mechanism, progression and locations of damages to the tunnels are assessed through a gradual increase in Permanent Ground Displacement (PGD). The ground surface deformations and strains, fault surface trace, fault scarp and the sinkhole caused by fault movement are observed here. These ground surface deformations are major threats to stability, safety and serviceability of the structures. According to the observations, the modeled tunnels are vulnerable to reverse fault rupture and but the functionality loss is not abrupt, and the tunnel will be able to tolerate some fault displacements. By monitoring the progress of damage states by increasing PGD, the fragility curves corresponding to each damage state were plotted and interpreted in related figures.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Ghalandarzadeh A, Moradi M, Ashtiani M, Kiani M, Rojhani M. Centrifuge model tests of fault rupture effect on some geotechnical structures. Japanese Geotechnical Society Special Publication, 2016, 2(3): 212–216
Kiani M, Akhlaghi T, Ghalandarzadeh A. Experimental modeling of segmental shallow tunnels in alluvial affected by normal faults. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2016, 51: 108–119
Hung C J, Monsees J, Munfah N, Wisniewski J. Technical Manual for Design and Construction of Road Tunnels—Civil Elements. New York: US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, National Highway Institute, 2009
Konagai K, Hori M, Meguro K, Koseki J, Matsushima T, Johansson J, Murata O. Key Points for Rational Design for Civil Infrastructures near Seismic Faults Reflecting Soil-Structure Interaction Features. Japan Geotechnical Society. Report of JSPS Research Project, Grant-in-aid for Scientific Research (A) Project. 2006
Prentice C S, Ponti D J. Coseismic deformation of the Wrights tunnel during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake: A key to understanding 1906 fault slip and 1989 surface ruptures in the southern Santa Cruz Mountains, California. Journal of Geophysical Research. Solid Earth, 1997, 102(B1): 635–648
Owen G N, Scholl R E. Earthquake Engineering of Large Underground Structures. NASA STI/Recon Technical Report N. 1981
Kontogianni V A, Stiros S C. Earthquakes and seismic faulting: Effects on tunnels. Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, 2003, 12: 153–156
Dowding C H, Rozan A. Damage to rock tunnels from earthquake shaking. Journal of Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental, 1978, 104: 175–191
Bäckholm G, Munier R. Effects of Earthquakes on the Deep Repository for Spent Fuel in Sweden on Case Studies and Preliminary Model Results. SKB: TR-02-24. Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co., 2002
Pratt H R, Hustrulid W. Earthquake Damage to Underground Facilities. Aiken, SC: Du Pont de Nemours (EI) and Co., 1978
Pincus H J, Bray J D, Seed R B, Seed H B. 1 g small-scale modelling of saturated cohesive soils. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 1993, 16(1): 46–53
Garcia F E, Bray J D. Distinct element simulations of earthquake fault rupture through materials of varying density. Soils and Foundations, 2018, 58(4): 986–1000
Oettle N K, Bray J D. Fault rupture propagation through previously ruptured soil. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 2013, 139(10): 1637–1647
Oettle N K, Bray J D. Numerical procedures for simulating earthquake fault rupture propagation. International Journal of Geomechanics, 2017, 17(1): 04016025
Cole D A Jr., Lade P V. Influence zones in alluvium over dip-slip faults. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1984, 110(5): 599–615
Bray J D, Seed R B, Cluff L S, Seed H B. Earthquake fault rupture propagation through soil. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1994, 120(3): 543–561
Lee J W, Hamada M. An experimental study on earthquake fault rupture propagation through a sandy soil deposit. Structural Engineering/Earthquake Engineering, 2005, 22(1): 1s–13s
Tali N, Lashkaripour G R, Hafezi Moghadas N, Ghalandarzadeh A. Centrifuge modeling of reverse fault rupture propagation through single-layered and stratified soil. Engineering Geology, 2019, 249: 273–289
Gazetas G, Anastasopoulos I, Apostolou M. Shallow and deep foundations under fault rupture or strong seismic shaking. In: Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering. Dordrecht: Springer, 2007, 185–215
Ashtiani M, Ghalandarzadeh A, Mahdavi M, Hedayati M. Centrifuge modeling of geotechnical mitigation measures for shallow foundations subjected to reverse faulting. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 2018, 16: 103–110
Davoodi M, Jafari M K, Ahmadi F. Comparing the performance of vertical and diagonal piles group at the normal fault rupture. Journal of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering, 2014, 55(8): 1130–1143
Yang S, Mavroeidis G P. Bridges crossing fault rupture zones: A review. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2018, 113: 545–571
Qu B, Goel R K. Fault-rupture response spectrum analysis of a four-span curved bridge crossing earthquake fault rupture zones. In: Structures Congress 2015. Oreqon: American Society of Civil Engineers Structures, 2015
Sherard J, Cluff L, Allen C. Potentially active faults in dam foundations. Geotechnique, 1974, 24(3): 367–428
Allen C R, CluffL S. Active faults in dam foundations: An update. In: Proceedings of the 12th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. WCEE, 2000
Zanjani M M, Soroush A. Numerical modeling of reverse fault rupture propagation through clayey embankments. International Journal of Civil Engineering, 2013, 11: 122–132
Gazetas G, Pecker A, Faccioli E, Paolucci R, Anastasopoulos I. Preliminary design recommendations for dip-slip fault-foundation interaction. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 2008, 6(4): 677–687
Moradi M, Rojhani M, Galandarzadeh A, Takada S. Centrifuge modeling of buried continuous pipelines subjected to normal faulting. Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration, 2013, 12(1): 155–164
Rojhani M, Moradi M, Galandarzadeh A, Takada S. Centrifuge modeling of buried continuous pipelines subjected to reverse faulting. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 2012, 49(6): 659–670
Burridge P B, Scott R F, Hall J F. Centrifuge study of faulting effects on tunnel. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1989, 115(7): 949–967
Varnusfaderani M G, Golshani A, Nemati R. Behavior of circular tunnels crossing active faults. Acta Geodynamica et Geomaterialia, 2015, 12: 363–376
Varnusfaderani M G, Golshani A, Majidian S. Analysis of cylindrical tunnels under combined primary near fault seismic excitations and subsequent reverse fault rupture. Acta Geodynamica et Geomaterialia, 2017, 14: 5–27
Lin M L, Chung C F, Jeng F S, Yao T C. The deformation of overburden soil induced by thrust faulting and its impact on underground tunnels. Engineering Geology, 2007, 92(3–4): 110–132
Baziar M H, Nabizadeh A, Jung Lee C, Yi Hung W. Centrifuge modeling of interaction between reverse faulting and tunnel. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2014, 65: 151–164
Rabczuk T, Belytschko T. Cracking particles: A simplified meshfree method for arbitrary evolving cracks. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 2004, 61(13): 2316–2343
Rabczuk T, Bordas S, Zi G. On three-dimensional modelling of crack growth using partition of unity methods. Computers & Structures, 2010, 88(23–24): 1391–1411
Rabczuk T, Zi G, Bordas S, Nguyen-Xuan H. A simple and robust three-dimensional cracking-particle method without enrichment. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 2010, 199(37–40): 2437–2455
Ren H, Zhuang X, Cai Y, Rabczuk T. Dual-horizon peridynamics. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 2016, 108(12): 1451–1476
Ren H, Zhuang X, Rabczuk T. Dual-horizon peridynamics: A stable solution to varying horizons. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 2017, 318: 762–782
Areias P, Rabczuk T, Dias-da-Costa D. Element-wise fracture algorithm based on rotation of edges. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 2013, 110: 113–137
Zhou S, Rabczuk T, Zhuang X. Phase field modeling of quasi-static and dynamic crack propagation: COMSOL implementation and case studies. Advances in Engineering Software, 2018, 122: 31–49
Zhou S, Zhuang X, Rabczuk T. A phase-field modeling approach of fracture propagation in poroelastic media. Engineering Geology, 2018, 240: 189–203
Zhou S W, Xia C C. Propagation and coalescence of quasi-static cracks in Brazilian disks: An insight from a phase field model. Acta Geotechnica, 2018, 14: 1195–1214
Areias P, Reinoso J, Camanho P P, César de Sá J, Rabczuk T. Effective 2D and 3D crack propagation with local mesh refinement and the screened Poisson equation. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 2018, 189: 339–360
Zhuang X, Augarde C, Mathisen K. Fracture modeling using meshless methods and level sets in 3D: Framework and modeling. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 2012, 92(11): 969–998
Areias P, Msekh M, Rabczuk T. Damage and fracture algorithm using the screened Poisson equation and local remeshing. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 2016, 158: 116–143
Areias P, Rabczuk T. Steiner-point free edge cutting of tetrahedral meshes with applications in fracture. Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, 2017, 132: 27–41
Zhou S, Zhuang X, Zhu H, Rabczuk T. Phase field modelling of crack propagation, branching and coalescence in rocks. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 2018, 96: 174–192
MRl H. Multi-hazard loss estimation methodology: Earthquake model. Washington, D.C.: Department of Homeland Security, FEMA, 2003
O’Rourke M J, Liu X. Response of Buried Pipelines Subject to Earthquake Effects. Buffalo: Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research, 1999
Russo M, Germani G, Amberg W. Design and construction of large tunnel through active faults: A recent application. In: Proceedings of the International Conference of Tunnelling and Underground Space Use. Istanbul, 2002
Madabhushi G. Centrifuge Modelling for Civil Engineers. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2014
Moradi M, Ghalandarzadeh A. A new geotechnical centrifuge at the University of Tehran, IR Iran. In: Proceedings of the Conference on Physical Modeling in Geotechnics. London: Talor & Francis Group, 2010
Bayat M, Ghalandarzadeh A. Stiffness degradation and damping ratio of sand-gravel mixtures under saturated state. International Journal of Civil Engineering, 2017, 16: 1261–1277
Haeri S M, Kavand A, Rahmani I, Torabi H. Response of a group of piles to liquefaction-induced lateral spreading by large scale shake table testing. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2012, 38: 25–45
Aashto A. Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. Washington, D.C.: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001
Peyvandi A, Soroushian P, Jahangirnejad S. Structural design methodologies for concrete pipes with steel and synthetic fiber reinforcement. ACI Structural Journal, 2014, 111: 83–92
Young O C, Trott J. Buried Rigid Pipes. New York: CRC Press, 2014
Fahimi A, Evans T S, Farrow J, Jesson D A, Mulheron M J, Smith P A. On the residual strength of aging cast iron trunk mains: Physically-based models for asset failure. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2016, 663: 204–212
Rafiee R, Habibagahi M R. Evaluating mechanical performance of GFRP pipes subjected to transverse loading. Thin-walled Structures, 2018, 131: 347–359
Rafiee R, Habibagahi M R. On the stiffness prediction of GFRP pipes subjected to transverse loading. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 2018, 22(11): 4564–4572
Kabir M E, Song B, Martin B E, Chen W. Compressive behavior of fine sand. Sandia National Laboratories, 2010.
Bransby M F, Davies M C R, El Nahas A, Nagaoka S. Centrifuge modelling of reverse fault-foundation interaction. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 2008, 6(4): 607–628
Bransby M, Davies M, Nahas A E. Centrifuge modelling of normal fault-foundation interaction. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 2008, 6(4): 585–605
Ng C W, Cai Q, Hu P. Centrifuge and numerical modeling of normal fault-rupture propagation in clay with and without a preexisting fracture. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 2012, 138(12): 1492–1502
Burland J, Standing J, Jardine P. Assessing the risk of building damage due to tunnelling-lessons from the Jubilee Line Extension, london, Geotechnical Engineering: Meeting Society’s Needs. In: Proceedings of the Fourteenth Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference. Hong Kong, China: CRC Press, 2001
Burland J B, Standing J R, Jardine F M. Building Response to Tunnelling: Case Studies from Construction of the Jubilee Line Extension. London: Thomas Telford, 2001
Camós C, Špačková O, Straub D, Molins C. Probabilistic approach to assessing and monitoring settlements caused by tunneling. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2016, 51: 313–325
Dindarloo S R, Siami-Irdemoosa E. Maximum surface settlement based classification of shallow tunnels in soft ground. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2015, 49: 320–327
Fang Y S, Wu C T, Chen S F, Liu C. An estimation of subsurface settlement due to shield tunneling. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2014, 44: 121–129
Xie X, Yang Y, Ji M. Analysis of ground surface settlement induced by the construction of a large-diameter shield-driven tunnel in Shanghai, China. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2016, 51: 120–132
Som M, Das S. Theory and practice of foundation design. Delhi: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2003
Terzaghi K. Settlement of structures in Europe and methods of observation. In: American Society of Civil Engineers Proceedings. New York: ASCE, 1937
MacDonald D H. A survey of comparisons between calculated and observed settlements of structures on clay. In: Proceedings of the Correlation between Calculated and Observed Stresses and Displacements in structures Conference. London: Institution of Civil Engineers, 1995
Lambe T W, Whitman R V. Soil mechanics SI version. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2008
Sowers G. Foundation Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1962
Bjerrum L. Discussion on proceedings of the European conference of soils mechanics and foundations engineering. Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Publication, 1963, 3: 1–3
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sabagh, M., Ghalandarzadeh, A. Centrifuge experiments for shallow tunnels at active reverse fault intersection. Front. Struct. Civ. Eng. 14, 731–745 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-020-0614-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-020-0614-7