Production, Cost Analysis, and Marketing of Fermented Fish

Abstract

Fermented fish have long been an important cuisine of the human diet across the world. Fermentation is an important technique for preserving perishable fish products which also aid in nutritional quality. Fermented fish serve as a stable and significant source of proteins, vitamins, minerals, and nutrients. Fish products serve as stable and significant sources of protein, vitamins, minerals, and nutrients. The differences among the fish products mainly occur due to different types of fish species used as substrates and the associated microbes involved in its manufacture. Fermented fish contain a plethora of beneficial microbiota, making them a valuable source of probiotics that may confer nutritional and health benefits. However, production of fermented fish is still confined to small scale or local cottage industries. Many countries of Asia and Africa still follow spontaneous fermentation while in Europe, defined starter cultures are used to maintain the consistency of the products. The introduction of starter culture in fermentation industries has led to greater quality, consistency, and safety of fermented fish, while choice of culture is critical. Fish industry and its mass production have accelerated over the last decades. This chapter cumulates the different methods of fermented fish productions, the variable marketing chains, and important elements of marketing fermented fish products for sustainable development.

1 Introduction

Fermentation is one of the ancient techniques of preserving perishable food products. Fermentation is defined as a method in which the metabolic activity of various microorganisms transforms and stabilizes food products (Wilburn & Ryan, 2017). The microbial populations in fermented foods are derived either from autochthonous microbes residing within the raw materials, or from a defined starter culture (Tamang et al., 2020; Narzary et al., 2021). During Neolithic time, foods were fermented spontaneously without using any starter culture, known as natural fermentation (Shangpliang et al., 2018; Dewan & Tamang, 2007). However, another method of fermenting food is using loopful from previously fermented batch, also known as the back sloping method (Joishy et al., 2019). During fermentation, microorganisms break down carbohydrates into organic acid, alcohol, carbon dioxide, and bacteriocins (Nout, 2014; Ananou et al., 2007). Microbes transformed volatile and bioactive compounds into anew edible forms with enhanced nutritional properties, flavours, and aromas. Therefore, fermented foods are a stable source of vitamins, calories, proteins, minerals, and other nutrients. Fermentation also enhances the shelf-life, and organoleptic properties of perishable food items (Altay et al., 2013; Hwang et al., 2017). Fermented foods exert several beneficial effects on human health such as reduces high blood pressure, cholesterol levels, osteoporosis, diabetes, obesity, allergies, and also protection against pathogens which might be attributed to the presence of bioactive peptides synthesized from protein by bacteria involved in fermentation (Sekar & Kandavel, 2002).

With the development of civilization, the method of fermentation has also evolved. Fermented fish is one of the most popular fermented foods and is widely consumed in different parts of the world. Fermented fish products were originated in Mekong basins of South East Asia around 200 BCE to 200 CE (Tamang et al., 2020). The first ethnic groups of people to initiate fermentation using freshwater fish are reported to be Thai – Lao, Khmer, and Burmese (Tamang et al., 2020). Fish sauces such as garum and muria were originated in Greece (Tamang & Samuel, 2010). Fermented fish products are a staple food of many ethnic tribes of Asian countries, including Korea, Japan, China, Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, India, Philippines, and Indonesia (Fig. 1). However, these products are typically produced at the family or village level using traditional methods in the regions. Fermented fish products are of three different types: fish fermented with or without salt, paste, and sauce (Fig. 2). Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) suggests that dietary habits of the populations directly influence the production and marketing growth of food items in a country (FAO, 2020). In the developing countries of Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Africa, there is an increasing demand for fermented fish products due to its enormous health beneficial property. The Scandinavian countries in Europe also prefer fermented fish products, including surstromming (fermented herring) and rakorret (fermented trout) (Narzary et al., 2021).

Fig. 1

Varieties of fermented fish consumed across the world

Fig. 2

Different forms of fermented fish produced in different parts of the world

Spontaneous fermentation is mainly preferred in Asia, Southeast Asia, and Africa, whereas in Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand defined starter culture is widely used to initiate fermentation. Fish fermentation is a time-consuming method that can be reduced using defined starter cultures which enhances fermentation, reduces time period, and ensures the quality and consistency of the products for commercial purpose (Narzary et al., 2021). Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are widely used in food fermentation due to enormous health beneficial attributes. LAB enhances lactic acid production, decreases biogenic amines secretion, and aids in nutritional property of the end product (Hill et al., 2017; Parente & Cogan, 2004; Bintsis, 2018). Additionally, non-lactic acid bacteria such as Bacillus, Staphylococcus sp., and Micrococcus sp. also play a crucial role in fermenting fish (Narzary et al., 2021). Previous studies reported that Virgibacillus sp. SK 33 and Staphylococcus sp. SK1-1-5 strains increase the desired volatile compounds in the fish sauce by inducing higher production of proteinases (Narzary et al., 2021). Tetragenococcus halophilus improves fish sauce’s flavour (Dıncer et al., 2010) and reduces histamine accumulation in low-salted fermented fish products (Narzary et al., 2021).

In India, the fish curing industry has high demand but paradoxically lacks commercial strategies (Pillai et al., 1956). The indigenous fermented fish product is an intrinsic part of the dietary habits of an ethnic tribes residing within Himalayan belt (Narzary et al., 2021). Fish is fermented in an artisanal way by different tribes, whose method varies in a considerable way, including salting, drying, and fermenting. The fermented fish product Ngari is prepared using dried Puntius sophore, while hentak, which is a fermented fish paste, is prepared using Esomus danricus are intrinsic dietary habits of Manipur. Similarly, Tungtap is a fermented fish paste which is prepared using Puntius sophore found in Meghalaya. In Sikkim, Gnuchi, a smoked fish product, is widely preferred by Lepcha community and is prepared using Schizothorax richardsonii, Labeo dero, Acrossocheilus spp., and Channa sp., while Sidra is a sun-dried fish product prepared from Puntius sarana. Sukuti is trendy cuisine among Gorkhalis, which is prepared from Harpodon nehereus and is consumed as curry, soup, and pickle. Shidal is a fermented fish product that is prepared by keeping semi-dried Puntius species in earthen pots for around 4–6 months. Shidal is widely consumed in Tripura, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh and is also known as Matkashidal. The traditional knowledge of the ethnic women of this region plays a vital role in manufacturing fermented food, their marketing within and outside area (Tamang et al., 2009). Fish fermentation is a small-scale industry and can provide direct employment to its people (FAO, 2020). The nutritional value of fermented foods can improve public health and provide opportunities for economic development. However, good manufacturing practices (GMP) should be followed by the small-scale producers to have sustainable development goals, paving way for its mass productions and economic upliftment.

2 Mass Multiplication

Fermentation of fish is still practice in home or small-scale level using manual labour in different parts of the world. Recently, the demand of fermented fish has become global due to its health beneficial attributes (Tamang et al., 2020). However, to meet the demands of the same, a large-scale production is required. Fermentation of fish demands longer time period of about 4–6 months which is a major limitation in its mass multiplication. Therefore, implementation of starter cultures or well-characterized strains with sequenced genomes might play an important role in shortening the fermentation time and mass production of the fermented fish (Tamang et al., 2020).

Fermented fish contain beneficial metabolites such as ascorbic acid, and are antioxidant-rich food products. However, few fermenting bacteria such as Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Enterococcus, Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, and Bacillus in fermented fish produces biogenic amines (BA) which might be lethal if consumed in excess quantity (Tamang et al., 2020; Narzary et al., 2021; Suzzi & Gardini, 2003). BA is nitrogenous compound formed through decarboxylation of amino acids (Sivamaruthi et al., 2021). Lactobacillus produces histamine, putrescine, and tyramine while Enterococcus additionally produces cadaverine (Bover-Cid & Holzapfel, 1999). Although BA are omnipresent but high concentration of the same (1000 mg of total BAs/kg; 8 mg of histamine) might cause a minor allergic reaction to serious health issues in susceptible individuals (Erdag et al., 2018). There are several factors which influence accumulation of BAs in fish products such as raw material quality, moisture, fermentation duration, storage conditions, starter culture, and temperature (Sivamaruthi et al., 2021). Therefore, during strain selection for fermenting fish, isolates which are unable to produce BA should be an important criterion. Recent advancements in omics approach such as metabolomics, next-generation sequencing, and bioprocess technology provide enormous opportunity to address such challenges along with enhancement of flavour, improved shelf-life, defense against bacteriophages, and preservation.

Additionally, implications of starter culture and controlled fermentations provide consistent quality products, reduce spoilage, and assure food safety (Tamang et al., 2020). The demand of such quality products is accelerating within low income countries in Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa (Tamang et al., 2020). Mass multiplications of fermented fish products might facilitate efficient production of similar kind of quality products throughout the year. Mass multiplication methods are based on two principles: (1) specialization and division of labour and (2) automation such as use of tools and machinery for manufacturing standard products. Across the continent, every ethnic tribe has emerged diverse artisanal methods of preparing fermented fish products. Therefore, method validation and proof of concept is very crucial in the process of mass multiplications (Fig. 3). This will heighten the new business forum paving way for global consumption.

Fig. 3

Strategies for the mass production of fermented fish

3 Advantage of Mass Production

3.1 Economically Efficient

Mass production is a process which judiciously utilizes resources, require fewer labour charges, while decrease total expenditure per unit by saving unnecessary expenditure.

3.2 Fast Production Rate

Mass production employs advanced technology and conveyor methods to streamline and boasts the fastest production rate of the manufacturing procedure.

3.3 Production Accuracy

Mass production allows low margin error with high accuracy based upon auxiliary and repetitive primary operations, which work together to create a final product.

4 Disadvantage of Mass Productions

4.1 Inflexible to Consumer Demand

Consumer demands are an essential parameter in mass production. Therefore, it is difficult to change or redesign if consumer demands decline for the same. Additionally, if the end product is perishable, mass multiplication can be wastage.

4.2 Disengaged Workforce

In mass production, quality control is a crucial factor in maintaining the safety of the fermented fish product. Therefore, motivated staff is necessary, which might be supported by rotating them frequently.

4.3 Difficult to Restructure Production

Mass multiplication is a unison strategy in which machines work together to produce a quality product. Therefore, a change in the production line might have significant financial and logistical consequences.

5 Business Plan Development

Fish and fishery products are the most traded food commodities across the world. However, fermented fish are nominal in the global food map due to its strong odoriferous flavour that repulse western taste (Sally, 2020). Fermented fish products are popular cuisine in Africa, Asia, and Europe (Xu et al., 2021). Each continent has unique fermented fish products prepared in an artisanal way based on differences in environmental conditions, raw materials, and microorganisms (Zang et al., 2020).

Fermented fish products are manufactured on small-scale or local cottage industries harbouring microbiome of respective geographic conditions resulting in variety of product qualities (Xu et al., 2021). The demand of fermented fish products continues to increase globally due to its health beneficial attributes in addition to its unique flavour, and texture (Xu et al., 2021). However, introduction of cold chain and various preservation technologies in Western countries have laid preservation methodology of fermented fish largely outdated for commercial purpose (Xu et al., 2021). The standardization of the final product is crucial which might be obtained by implementing the selected dominant native microorganisms, maintaining fish quality as the microbial enzymes found in fish flesh is important in fermentation (Narzary et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2021). Prahok, a national staple fermented food of Cambodia, is produced at industry standards by maintaining the specific characteristics like smell and colour of the product (Narzary et al., 2021). Previous studies reported that finest quality fish products are produced by controlled growth of microorganisms and conversion of enzymes (Xu et al., 2021). To maintain the consistent quality of fish and its availability during dry season, few methods of aquaculture or aquafarming might be implemented. Aquaculture is a method of fish farming which is performed offshore to rear fish in completely artificial facilities. For example, biofloc technology (BFT) is defined as aggregates of bacteria, algae, or protozoa, held together in a matrix with particulate organic matter to improve or treat water used in aquaculture system (Abakari et al., 2021; El-Sayed, 2021). BFT has been adjudged as novel “blue revolution” and an outstanding technology for sustainable aquaculture that could contribute to FAO sustainable development goals (SDGs) related to food security (El-Sayed, 2021). BFT is capable of solving some of the environmental and economic challenges faced by traditional aquaculture production systems (Abakari et al., 2021). BFT is based on the recycling of nutrients and their reuse in the same system, which is designed as a zero-exchange or minimal exchange (water) system (Emerenciano et al., 2017). In aquaculture, BFT prevents from water-borne diseases, improves water quality, feed conversion, and biosecurity. A report suggests that the fish farming is vision to expand from 2018 to 2030 (FAO, 2020). Fish farming is therefore beneficial to meet fish demands and also for using in fermentation technology.

In India, various types of fermented fish products are produced in the Northeastern and coastal region at local cottage industry (Narzary et al., 2021). Asia’s largest dried fish market is in Jagiroad, Assam.

However, the fermented fish like puthi and telesh shidal are imported from Bangladesh (Upadhyay, 2016). The consumption and demand of fermented fish has shot up in the past few months due to the health beneficial belief (Narzary et al., 2021). Shidal is believed to enhance immunity during fever, cough, and cold. Therefore, to meet the consumers demand, a proper business development strategy and certain standards need to be maintained (Uchoi, 2020). It is extremely important to maintain the health and safety issues related to the product (Narzary et al., 2021). Although fermented foods are safe to consume, however, if fermented improperly, then the same product might be lethal to consume (Tamang et al., 2020). Therefore, improved hygienic practices such as education and information to rural or small-scale manufacturers, implementation of starter culture, maintaining good manufacturing practices and hazard analysis critical control point for extremely perishable products like fish, emphasis on workers personal hygiene, selecting or maintaining high-quality raw materials to reduce pathogens and undesirable microbial load, use of heat for proper pretreatment of raw materials, fermentation should be practiced always under optimal environment including aerobic/anaerobic or enclosed and constant temperature to maintain the quality of end product (Tamang et al., 2020). To develop business plan for food products, it is important to have blueprint and executive summary of the same (Uchoi, 2020). Executive summery provides a detailed overview of the plans, table of contents, background, history, goals, objectives, description of the product, a detailed market assessment, competitors in the existing market, marketing, and manufacturing plans (Fig. 3). The vision, mission, and objectives of fermented fish business is to producing the best quality fermented fish products or providing customer satisfaction by returning value for money. Data of complete details of total fish and type of fish used in the business and the varieties of equipment acquired with their billing details are also important. A detailed market analysis will provide the status of the competitors and information about the innovation which will be needed to be maintained in new fish products. The major components required to start business of fermented fish products are a dedicated space/land to carry out different procedures for fermenting fish, regular supply of pots, and skilled manpower, regular water supply to keep fresh fishes.

6 Production and Cost-Benefit Analysis

Globally, fish consumption has rose significantly since 1961 from 9.0 kg per capita to 20.3kg in 2017 (FAO, 2020). This might be due to the increased availability of fish and fish products across different regions contributing to the food security and nutrition of the world populations. In 2018, 35% of global fish production has remained from China which is still major fish producer across the world (FAO, 2020). Additionally, 34% accounted from Asia, 14% from America, 10% from Europe, 7% from Africa, and 1% from Oceania contributed in global fish production (FAO, 2020). However, in last decades, total fish productions in Asia and Africa have doubled in comparison to Europe and Americas where the productions have been gradually decreasing since 1980s (FAO, 2020). In 2017, consumption of fish accounted for 17% of the global population’s animal protein intake covering 50% of several small island developing countries (SIDS), Bangladesh, Gambia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Sierra Leone, and Cambodia (FAO, 2020). However, in 2018, 88%, i.e., 156 million tonnes of global fish production was utilized for direct human consumption while remaining 12%, i.e., 22 million tonnes of fishes were used for the production of its meal and oil (FAO, 2020). Fish farming dominates in Asia, followed by Africa while in Europe and Oceania, fish farming is declining. Fish and fishery products are the most traded food commodities across the world.

With the increase in fish and fish products demand, the fish industries wastage is also expanding (Marti-Quijal et al., 2020). These by-products represent approximately 50–70% of total fish weight which can be processed further to obtain high-quality products. Protein hydrolysates obtained after fish by-product processing is widely applicable for animal feed production to obtain increased animal protein intake (Saadaoui et al., 2019). Similarly, fish liver is the main organ for lipid accumulations in addition to skin or head due to which varieties of oils can also be produced using fish by-products (Vázquez et al., 2019; Rustad, 2003). Biogas, biodiesel, and fertilizers can also be produced using fish by-products as they are rich in phosphorus, calcium, and nitrogen (Arvanitoyannis & Tserkezou, 2014; Illera-Vives et al., 2015). Fish by-products are widely used in manufacturing mainly marine proteases enzymes such as trypsin, pepsin, collagenase, elastase, and chymotrypsin. All these enzymes have large-scale industrial application including food technology and detergent (Klomklao, 2008; Ferraro et al., 2013).

In fish industries, acids or bases are mostly used for protein hydrolysis because of simple and inexpensive procedures (Kristinsson & Rasco, 2000). However, implementation of fermentation might provide several benefits in addition to the protein and lipid hydrolyzation. Fish flesh harbour lipases which aid in lipids hydrolyzation, while protein hydrolyzation is achieved by an array of fish gut and bacterial enzymes (Xu et al., 2021). Additionally, fermentation produces amino acids and antioxidant peptides which act together with glutathione to protect against oxidative stress (Ramírez et al., 2013; Rajendran et al., 2018). In various fermentation procedures, enzymes from plant and animal sources such as ficin, papain, bromelain, or trypsin and chymotrypsin might be used to accelerate the rate of hydrolysis (Xu et al., 2021). Previous studies reported that the quality of oil produced by fermentation was high in comparison to the fish treated with formic acid for hydrolysis (Özyurt et al., 2018). Implementation of fermentation technology might be very useful tool to improve and enhance the nutritional quality of fish products (Özyurt et al., 2019).

7 Small-Scale Production of Fermented Fishes by Artisanal Method

7.1 Asia

In a country, the production of fermented fish is solely depended on two factors including food habits of the native people and its national or international market demand (Essuman, 1992). In Asian countries, fish fermentation is a traditional method and is mostly prepared at home in small scale. For example, in India, various fermented fish has been reported from its Northeastern region which is produced at small or household scale. Each ethnic tribe of Northeast India has a unique artisanal method of fermenting fish. Previous studies reported that oil is common in Ngari and Telesh shidol production which initiates anaerobic fermentation process inside the earthen pot utilised in both types of fish fermentation (Figs. 2 and 3). However, xindol is prepared in bamboo poles in an artisanal way which is different in comparison to other fermented fish (Fig. 4). Xindol is prepared by mixing stem of Colocasia esculenta while Hentak is prepared by mixing with fresh petals of Alocasia gigantean (Figs. 5, 6, and 7). Colocasia esculenta are rich and natural source of bioactive proteins, which is reported to act as immunostimulators in distinct mice strains (Ribeiro Pereira et al., 2020).

Fig. 4

Business plan provides a general overview

Fig. 5

Flowchart depicting production strategy of Telesh shidal

Fig. 6

Flowchart depicting production strategy of Ngari

Fig. 7

Flowchart depicting production strategy of Xindol

7.2 Africa

Similarly, in African countries, the demand of fermented fish is more in comparison to salted or dried fish. Fermented fish is an important condiment and is important source of animal protein. Few major fermented fish product of Africa are Lanhouin, Momone, and Gued produced in Benin, Ghana, and Senegal, respectively (Essuman, 1992; Anihouvi et al., 2012; El Sheikha et al., 2014). Lanhouin is produced using 25 different species of fish, few which are Pseudotolithus senegalensis, Galeoides decadactylus, Chloroscombrus chrysurus, Scomberomorus tritor, and Caranx hyppos (Anihouvi et al., 2012). Fish is firstly dressed by scaling, gutting, and washing thoroughly followed by overnight ripening which is the most crucial step because its influences the texture and the aroma of Lanhouin (Anihouvi et al., 2012). After ripening, fishes are washed and salt is applied to the belly cavity, gill, and the whole fish. The quantity of the salt used depends on the 20–35% of the weight of fresh fish (Anihouvi et al., 2012). The salted fish is then arranged in earthen jar which is wrapped with sacks and buried in a 2 meters depth hole for 3 to 8 days fermentation. Later, the fermented product is sun dried to reduce the water content. Momone is widely consumed in Ghana and is produced using catfish, barracuda, sea bream, Galeoides decadactylus, Pseudotolithus senegalensis, Sphyraena spp., Caranx hippos, Caranx rhoneus, and Scomberomorus tritor (Anihouvi et al., 2012). The fish is washed thoroughly, salt is applied at a concentration of 15–40% of fish weight and allowed to ferment for 3 to 8 days. After fermentation, fish are dried for 1 to 3 days. Guedj is a fermented fish product of Senegalese and Gambiam which is used as flavouring agent by the local populations because of its exceptional flavour and taste (Anihouvi et al., 2012). The raw fish is dressed, washed, and fermented for about 2 to 3 days, followed by the drying step which is done for 3 to 5 days.

8 Cost-Benefits Analysis of Shidal

In Northeast region, shidal is widely consumed fermented fish product (Majumdar et al., 2016; Gupta et al., 2021). In Tripura, two different forms of shidal including puthi shidal and Bashpati shidal are processed and marketed. Bashpati shidal are low-priced value added product in comparison to puthi shidal. The total variable cost processing of puthi shidal was reported to be Rs. 213,647.5/t in Tripura whereas it was Rs. 285,129.99/t in Manipur (Upadhyay, 2016). The cost processing of Bashpati shidal is low approx. Rs. 231,344.43/t which might be due to low price of fishes. Cost of raw material or dry fish utilized for processing accounted for 90% of total variable cost while 10% accounts for transportation charge, labour charge for preparation of paste, loading and unloading the materials, cost of mustard oil which is very important for curing the matka (Upadhyay, 2016). In Tripura, the gross return of puthi shidal production was Rs. 266,241.3/t in comparison to Manipur where the gross return was reported to be Rs. 362,195.30/t. In Tripura, the gross return of Bashpati shidal was reported to be Rs. 231,344/t. The net return in processing of puthi shidal, in Manipur is reported to be Rs. 77,065.31/t whereas in Tripura, it is Rs. 52,593.8/t. The net return of Bashpati shidal is reported to be 59,616.17/t. The net return for processing of puthi and Bashpati shidal in Manipur and Tripura were reported to be 20–26% of the total revenue. Therefore, both types of shidal processing is economically viable and also provides direct employment to the women (Upadhyay, 2016).

9 Marketing of Product with the Main Objective of Entrepreneurship

Marketing is the connecting link between the producers/farmer and consumers (Nayeem et al., 2010). The marketing system directs products to reach consumers in an acceptable form. Marketing of fish also involve the buying and selling of fish by an individual who need not be a fish farmer (Nayeem et al., 2010). Marketing system operates in a chain formation through a set of intercessors that performs necessary commercial functions (Fig. 8). Fish farmers consider fish marketing as major challenges because of poor prices, lack of proper marketing platform, and transport system. Fish marketing provides international relationship and foreign exchange earnings. Additionally, it determines the most preferred forms of fish products, consumer preferences, creates employment opportunities, and encourages entrepreneurs. The marketing system is operated by private sector to improve marketing chain. Previous report suggests that in Bangladesh, fish and fishery products are marketed through different channels because of lack of proper marketing infrastructure (Reza et al., 2005). The major limitations in marketing of fish products are poor transportation and storage facilities (Nayeem et al., 2010).

Fig. 8

Different forms of marketing channels

The major elements of marketing fish and processed fish products include assemblage, storage, sorting, grading, packaging, transportation, purchase commission gent, wholesaler, retailer, and consumers. Assemblage is a process which enables farmers or marketer to measure precisely all the record of total fish products which may or may not be of same species. Storage is a procedure in which processed fish, dry fish products are stored in a warehouses or cool and dry environment. However, fresh fish are stored at freezer or cold room to control the growth of spoilage microbes in the fish. Storage of fish products is important to prevent fish market from over flooding which may hamper its market price. Similarly, sorting is the process of categorizing fish products for easy grading, handling, and marketing. It is done based on size, colour, species, and weight of fish products. Grading is a process of allocating prices to the sorted fish products based on its value and market demand. Market survey is important factor to get assured about the market price and prevent from arbitrary costing that may lead to loss or inability to sale. Packaging is a process of wrapping or loading fish products in containers including cans, bag, and cartoons. Packaging aids in handling during transportation and also plays an important role in attracting consumers. Labelling is equally important as it describes or provides necessary information about the raw materials, form of consumption, price, and shelf-life of the product. Transportation entails moving fish products from farm, warehouses, to the consumers or middle men. During transportation, temperature should be maintained properly. Transportation is a vital part in the distribution of fish products from farmers to wholesale markets and further to the retailer outlet. For marketing, advertisement of the fish product may provide awareness to the public regarding the availability, and quality of the fish products. It can be done by telephonic contacts, radio, newspaper, online platforms, and television. Selling and buying of fish products initiates with the farmers and ends with consumers while middleman obtains it with extra commission from the retailers. The increase in price of the fish products is due to the involvement of enormous number of commission agents (Ahmed et al., 1993).

10 Marketing of Shidal

Matkashidal which is popularly known as shidal is widely traded in the Northeast region of India and Bangladesh (Narzary et al., 2021; Zang et al., 2020; Nayeem et al., 2010). Shidal and dry fish products are marketed through similar channels due to which both products have similar kind of marketing chains as well as centres in the Northeast India (Nayeem et al., 2010). A survey of shidal marketing conducted in Bangladesh reported that there was no fixed marketing chain for fermented fish products, and the length varies depending on the locations as well as season (Nayeem et al., 2010). The fish farmers also functions as traders or wholesalers due to which they are aware of market prices.

In Northeast India and Bangladesh, there is high demand of salted, smoked, and fermented fish products. However, there is no information available on the marketing system of these products especially those produced from small indigenous species such as dried punti and semi-fermented products locally known as “Chepa shutki” in Bangladesh. Therefore, it is extremely important to know about the existing marketing channel which will help to identify marketing inefficiencies that pose negative impact on all the components of the value chain.