Abstract
The symbiotic association of plants with fungus exhibited arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) association that favour mineral and water nutrition and decrease abiotic and biotic stresses. It has been reported that approximately 90% of plants are colonized by the mycorrhizal fungi species ranging from angiosperms to gymnospermic plants, while several of them are devoid of AM fungi. During its life cycle, the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi must have a host and this symbiotic association is reciprocally benign, where the AM provides help to the plant in nutrients uptake, and in return, the plant provides the fungus with carbon. The AM fungi have been used as a biocontrol agent in lieu of their antagonistic interaction with various soilborne plant pathogens. The review highlights various examples of use of AMF for the control of phytopathogenic flora and fauna. The present chapter reflects inclusive compilation that highlights the mechanisms adapted by AM Fungi for the control of pathogenic flora and fauna.
Access provided by Autonomous University of Puebla. Download chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Keywords
1 Introduction
The use of benign microbes as control mechanism so called ‘Biocontrol’ to kill phytopathogens has been extensively studied wherein biocontrol implies to likely enemies of pests or pathogens to eradicate or control their population. It involves the prologue of foreign species that exists as expected in the environment. It has been considered as environmentally safe and the easier option accessible to protect plants against detrimental flora and fauna (Azcon-Aguilar and Barea 1992). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are organisms that have been used as biocontrol agents of plants. Mycorrhizae are ubiquitous soil-borne fungi and serve as prospective tools for sustainable agriculture. Mycorrhizae are generally associated with most terrestrial vascular plant species worldwide (Srnith and Read 2008: Brundrett 2009), being beneficial in improving plant growth and development (Jeffries et al. 2003).They belong to the Glomeromycota phylum (Schübler et al. 2001) and originated approximately 450my ago (Schübler and Walker 2011). They improve the growth of plant-root system and control plant pathogens (Gianinazzi and Schuepp 1994).Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi influence plant augmentation and improvement. Their interactions with rhizosphere microorganisms influence the overall development of plants (Azcon-Aguilar and Barea 1992; Fitter and Sanders 1992). A harmful involvement between the host plant and the indigenous mycrorrhizal fungi leads to solemn fatalities in crop yields, which indicate the connotation of AMF in agriculture (Caron 1989; Ravnskov and Jakobsen 1995; St-Arnaud et al. 1995; Frankenberger and Arshad 1995).
Mycorrhizal fungi are the most influential group of soil microflora with reference to sustainability of ecosystem, once they establish mutualistic relationship with plants (Jeffries and Barea 2012). The rhizosphere is characterised by improved microbial activity owed to the root exudates (Grayston et al. 1997). Mycorrhizosphere include the fungal component of the symbiosis while plant roots in normal and semi-normal ecosystems are found to have mycorrhizal relations (Rambelli 1973).
The mycorrhizosphere is the area surrounding mycorrhizal fungus where the nutrients on the rampage as of the fungus raise the microbial actions (Linderman 1988).The mycorrhizosphere effect indicates the provoked changes in the plant biochemistry as a result of mycorrhizal-root immigration which causes a shift in the rhizosphere microflora that favours the absence or presence of pathogens (Paulitz and Linderman 1989). The mycorrhizosphere effect causes changes in root exudate composition mainly because of root membrane permeability. The root colonization with AM fungi has been shown to suppress harmful effects of fungi, stramenopiles, nematodes and bacteria ((Graham et al. 1981).
2 The Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
Mycorrhizal associations diverge broadly in structures and functionalities, but the AM are the most common interactions (Harrier 2001). These fungi are nonculturable and are obligate biotrophs, in view of the fact that these fungi can not inclusive their life cycle devoid of congregate a host. The study of these fungi and their biology and biotechnological applications has been hampered because of non-culturability (Schübler and Walker 2011; Barea et al. 2013). Six genera of AM fungi have been recognized based on phenetic characteristics of sexual spores and also based on various biochemical studies and molecular methods (Peterson et al. 2004). Various biochemical, molecular and immunological characteristics criteria employed for identification of AM fungi (Mukerji et al. 2002). AM fungi include genera such as Glomus, Gigaspora, Sclerocystis, Acaulospora, Entrophospora and Scutellospora (Garbaye 1994).
3 The AM Symbiosis
Srnith and Read (2008) reported that AM symbiosis is the most numerous type of mycorrhizal relationship wherein worldwide approximately 250 k species of plant, including angiosperms, petersengymnosperms and pteridophytes, tend to form such association. Herein, AM symbiosis initiates with the fungal infiltration in the root cortical cell walls followed by configuration of arbuscules -like structures (haustoria or coils) that interface with the host cytoplasm. These fungal structures help to augment exterior area for swap over of metabolites flanked by the plant and the fungus. Several mycorrhizal fungi are recognized to construct vesicles for storage. It has been revealed that in natural ecosystems plants colonised with mycorrhizal fungi may incur 10–20% of the photosynthetically fixed carbon for their fungal symbionts (Johnson et al. 2002a, b).
The mycorrhizal fungi interact directly with the soil by producing extraradical hyphae that extend deep into the soil (Rhodes and Gerdemann 1975). Extra-radical hyphae raise the potential for nutrient and water uptake (Augé 2001). Hyphae of AM fungi form soil aggregates which play an important role in soil stabilisation (Tisdall and Oades 1979). The extraradical hyphae are responsible for acquisition of phosphorus and other mineral nutrients by plants (Read and Perez-Moreno 2003). These hyphae also improve mobilisation of organically bound nitrogen from plant litter (Hodge et al. 2001). Mycorrhizal fungi also alleviate negative effects of plant pathogens and toxic metals (Khan et al. 2000). The extraradical hyphae interact with other soil organisms either directly by physically and/or metabolically interacting with other organisms in the mycorrhizosphere or indirectly by changing host plant physiology. Extra-radicular hyphae are surrounded by complex microbial communities that interact with the plant-mycorrhiza and sustain this relationship (Frey-Klett and Garbaye 2005). Thus, the establishment of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis affects the structure and diversity of microorganisms not only in the rhizosphere but also in other soil microhabitats.
4 Establishment of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Fungi
Most vascular plants have exhibited mycorrhizal associations in both natural and agro-ecosystems (van der Heijden et al. 2015; Brundrett 2009; Jeffries and Barea 2012; Bonfante and Desirò 2015; López-Ráez et al. 2011a, b; Maillet et al. 2011). Gutjahr and Parniske 2013; Bonfante and Desirò 2015). Upon root colonization, the extraradical mycelium (ERM) is formed which is frequently considered as “branching absorbing structures”, (Bago et al. 1998). It is able to absorb and transport nutrients up to 25 cm distance (Jansa et al. 2003; Smith and Smith 2012).
5 Biocontrol of Phytopathogenic Fungi by AM Fungi
Phytopathogenic fungi contribute substantially to the overall loss in crop yield followed by plant pathogenic bacteria and viruses. The control of phytopathogens has always been practiced by agrochemical application, which are applied at various sites of plants. However, the constant use of such chemicals results in negative effects on the environment that affects water bodies, soil, plants, animals and human health (Bodker et al. 2002). Phytopathogenic microorganisms also develop resistance against these agrochemicals with the passage of time which makes it more difficult to control. Therefore, biological control as part of integrate pathogen management has been regarded as the most sustainable and a viable alternative to the indiscriminate use of agrochemicals.
The convenience of AM Fungi as biocontrol for controlling various phytopathigenic fungi has been widely accepted (Cordier et al. 1996; Bodker et al. 2002; Harrier and Watson 2004; Azcon-Aguilar et al. 2002; Jaizme-Vega et al. 1998; Li et al. 1997; Pozo et al. 1999; Kulkarni et al. 1997), Prashanthi et al. (1997; Sharma et al. 1997). Feldmann and Boyle (1998) suggested that the crop loss due to phytopathogenic fungi could be reduced by an aggressively root colonizing AM Fungi. They observed an inverse relationship between G. etunicatum root colonization of begonia species and susceptibility to the powdery mildew fungus Erysiphe cichoracearum. Filion et al. (1999) found that extraradical mycelium of G. intraradices reduced the growth of F. oxysporum f. sp. chrysanthemi. They suggested that the chemical equilibrium of the mycorrhizosphere resulted in control of pathogen. In another study, Slezack et al. (2000) challenged pea with Aphanomyces euteiches and found that a fully established AMF symbiosis essential for protection against the pathogen. Phytophthora spp., have been commonly used as model fungi for demonstrating AMF-mediated plant disease control (Trotta et al. 1996). Caron and co-workers (1985) in their studies used the AMF species G. intraradices and pathogen F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici on tomato, and revealed that the combination of growth medium used, the application of Phosphorus and pretreatment with AM fungi could reduce disease severity. Newsham et al. (1995) reported that on pre-inoculating the annual grass Vulpia ciliata var. ambigua with Glomus sp. and re-introducing the grass into a natural grass population, there was a reduction in indigenous F. oxysporum. Torres-Barragan et al. (1996) in their study found that onion pretreated with Glomus sp. delayed the onset of onion white rot caused by Sclerotium cepivorum by two weeks in the field.
Hwang (1988) carried out a detailed study on interactions of mycorrhizal fungi and two wilt pathogens of alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Verticillium albo-atrum and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. medicaginis, under controlled conditions over a 6-month period.
6 Biocontrol of Phytopathogenic Bacteria by AM Fungi
The AM fungi have been found to interact with diazotrophic bacteria, biological control agents, and other rhizosphere inhabitants (Nemec 1994) that often result insignificant alterations to plant growth and development. Filion et al. (1999) and Shalaby and Hanna (1998) suggested that interactions between mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria may have negative or beneficial effects or have neutral effect at all on the plant pathogens. Sharma et al. (1995) found that on inoculation of mulberry with Glomus fasciculatum or G. mosseae in combination with phosphorus the incidence of bacterial blight caused by P. syringae pv. mori was found to significantly reduce. In a study by Shalaby and Hanna (1998), it was found that Glomus mosseae prevented the infection of soybean plants by P. syringae by suppressing pathogen population in soybean. Li et al. (1997) also found in their study that G. macrocarpum alleviated the infection caused by P. lacrymansin eggplant and cucumber. Waschkies et al. (1994) reported that on AMF inoculation of grapevines, the fluorescent pseudomonads on the rhizoplane were reduced which in turn reduced the incidence of grapevine replant disease. Similarly, root colonization by AMF caused a reduction in the colonization of apple seedling rootlets by actinomycetes causing replant disease (Otto and Winkler 1995).
7 Biocontrol of Phytopathogenic Viruses by AM Fungi
Mycorrhizae-mediated biocontrol of plant pathogenic viruses has been least studied. Earlier, Nemec and Myhre (1984) demonstrated that mycorrhizal plants increase the rate of multiplication of viruses, increased leaf lesions are found on mycorrhizal plants than on nonmycorrhizal plants and the number of AMF spores in the rhizosphere are reduced considerably. (Shaul et al. 1999). Schonbeck and Spengler (1979) reported that mycorrhizal tobacco plants (Nicotiana glutinosa L.) exhibited higher levels of tobacco mosaic virus colonization following the inoculation of mycorrhizal as compared to nonmycorrhizal tobacco. Contrary, Ferraz and Brown (2002) reported that mung bean yellow mosaic bigeminivirus reduced the AM colonization and yield of mycorrhizal plants, while Takahashi et al. (1994) reported lack of response to viral infection by a mycorrhizal host. Jabaji-Hare and Stobbs (1984) used electron microscopy to observe interaction of AMF with plant viruses.
8 Biocontrol of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes by AM Fungi
Many species of plant-parasitic nematodes could be potential pests on agricultural crops (Ferraz and Brown (2002). They are frequently found in the soil, but Ditylenchus spp. could act as aboveground pests and classified based on their feeding patterns (Perry and Moens 2011). The AMF has been deployed as biocontrol agents for nematodes (Jones et al. 2013; Gheysen and Mitchum 2011; Wesemael et al. 2011; Hao et al. 2012; Nicol et al. 2011; Alban et al. 2013; Salvioli and Bonfante 2013; Salvioli and Bonfante 2013).
9 Mechanisms of Mycorrhizae-Mediated Biocontrol
9.1 Higher Nutrient Uptake
The AMF has been suggested to improve phosphorus nutrition, enhance nitrogen uptake, or improve disease resistance in their host plants (Baum et al. 2015; Smith and Smith 2011; Gianinazzi et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2011; Fritz et al. 2006; Smith and Smith 2011). Nitrogen fixing bacteria or Phosphate solubilising bacteria have been found to synergistically interact with AM fungi and benefit plant development and growth (Puppi et al. 1994). Hodge et al. (2001) demonstrated the improved decay of plant litter in soil and N capture from the litter (15N–13C labelled Lolium perenne leaves) in the presence of the AM symbiont Glomus. Minerdi et al. (2001) reported the presence of genes for Nitrogen fixation in endosymbiotic Burkholderia in AM which makes it apparent that there may be a potential for enhanced nitrogen supply to mycorrhizal plants all the way through fixation of atmospheric Nitrogen.
9.2 Altered Root Morphology
The AMF symbiotic plants often show increased root growth and branching (Gutjahr and Paszkowski 2013). The root morphology responses resulting from AMF colonization depend on plant characteristics, with tap roots profit more from AM fungi than fibrous roots in terms of gained biomass and nutrient acquisition (Yang et al. 2014). Increased root branching observed in mycorrhizal plants have implications for pathogen infection as well (Vos et al. 2014). The mycorrhizal fungi increase host tolerance of pathogen attack by compensating for the loss of root biomass and functions caused by soilborne pathogenic fungi and nematodes which could be an indirect contribution to the biological control through the conservation of root system function through mycorrhizal arbuscules formation (Linderman 1994; Stoffelen et al. 2000; Norman et al. 1996; Elsen et al. 2003)
9.3 Competition for Nutrients and Space
The basis for interface between AMF and soil microorganisms is largely the physical opposition between mycorrhizal fungi and rhizosphere microorganisms to occupy more space in the roots (Bansal and Mukerji 1996). The pathogen suppression in mycorrhizal plants is mainly due to the competition for nutrients such as carbon by mycorrhiza fungi and rhizosphere soil microorganisms with the same physiological requirements (Jung et al. 2012; Vos et al. 2014). Hammer et al. (2011) stated that there is 4–20% carbon transfer of the total assimilated carbon from the host plant to the AMF. Cordier et al. (1998) reported that Phytophthora could not penetrate in arbuscule containing tomato plant. Lerat et al. (2003) reported that different AMF species mediate different levels of biocontrol as there is a difference in carbon sink strength between different AMF species. Vos (2012) reported that the AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis was not having a stronger biocontrol effect on plant parasitic nematodes Rhadopholus similis and Pratylenchus coffeae in banana nor on Meloidogyne incognita in tomato despite its higher carbon sink strength compared to Funneliformis mosseae.
9.4 Systemic Induced Resistance
From the biocontrol point of view AMF has been used to develop systemic induced resistance (SIR) in plants (Trotta et al. 1996; Cordier et al. 1998). The SIR is defined as the unrelenting induction of resistance or tolerance to infection in plants by inoculating with a pathogen, exposing to an environmental influence or treating with a chemical, with or without antimicrobial activity (Handelsman and Stabb 1996). Jones and Dangl (2006) and Zamioudis and Pieterse (2012) demonstrated that the disease resistance by AMF is mainly due to action of MAMPs. Bodker et al. (1998) reported SIR factor by G. intraradices in pea plant for resistance to A. euteiches. The AMF-mediated SIR protected potatoes against post-harvest suppression of potato dry rot, wherein dry rot in G. intraradix-inoculated potato was reduced by up to 90% compared to uninoculated control (Brendan et al. 1996).
9.5 Altered Rhizosphere Interactions
The AMF symbiosis leads to an changed root exudation composition and distribution in host plants rhizosphere (Jones et al. 2004; Hage-Ahmed et al. 2013; Harrier and Watson 2004; McArthur and Knowles 1992; Steinkellner et al. 2007; López-Ráez et al. 2011a, b. The root exudation may or may not be AMF specific (Kobra et al. 2009; Lioussanne et al. 2008). It helps in autoregulation of symbiosis interaction between plant and AMF (Schaarschmidt et al. 2013; Vierheilig et al. 2008; Pozo and Azcón-Aguilar 2007). Lioussanne et al. (2008) observed that the depending on the maturity level of the AM fungi colonization the attraction of Phytophthora nicotianae zoospores toward R. irregularis colonized root exudates changed to repellency. The bacterial colonization in rhizosphere induced by AMF reported in recent period (Nuccio et al. 2013; Philippot et al. 2013; Zamioudis and Pieterse 2012; Sood 2003; Druzhinina et al. 2011; Sikora et al. 2008).
9.6 Phytoalexins and Phytoanticipins
Under response to pathogen attack plants produce phytoalexins which are natural products and exhibited antagonistic activity against microflora and –fauna and plant per se. They are lipophilic in natures that have the ability to cross the plasma membrane and act inside the cell (Braga et al. 1991). Based on earlier researches it has been demonstrated that phytoalexins are produced in response to microbial infection (Paxton 1981; Wyss et al. 1991) whereas phytoanticipins considered as the storage products in plant cells that produced in anticipation of or prior to pathogen attack (VanEtten et al. 1995). Upon mycorrhiza fungal colonization of roots there is an increase in the level of lignin, syringic, ferulic or coumaric acids and phenolics namely, isoflavonoids or flavonoids (Morandi 1996).
As a result of pathogen invasion (F. oxysporum), Dehne and Schonbeck (1979) explored the phytoalexins synthesis in mycorrhizal tomato plants where the plants were inoculated with G. mosseae. Upon treatment it has been reported that plants showed greater resistance to the F. oxysporum which lead to enhanced phenylalanine and beta-glucosidase activity along with total phenol content in their roots compared to control plants (Dehne and Schonbeck (1979). Sundaresan et al. (1993) reported in vitro inhibition of F. oxysporum by a purified ethanol root fraction of mycorrhizal cowpea. Caron et al. 1986 recommended that phytoalexins neutralize the antagonistic effects of pathogens in mycorrhizal plants as compared to control
9.7 Hydrolases
The AMF mediated biocontrol has explored the subsistence of defense-related genes in mycorrhizal plants (Lambais and Mehdy 1995). Pozo et al. (2002) reported that entry of mycorrhizal fungi into tomato roots induced fabrication of hydrolytic enzymes such as chitinase, chitosanase, b-glucanase, and superoxide dismutase to host defense mechanism against Pseudomonas parasitica. Graham and Graham (1991) reported constructive relationship between the level of glucanase activity in host tissues and resistance to phytopathogens.
9.8 Antibiosis
Earlier it has been reported that under non influential impact of pH the AMF namely, G. intraradices produced unidentified antimicrobial substance that helps in control of conidial germination of F. oxysporum f. sp. Chrysanthemi (Filion et al. 1999). Likewise, Budi et al. (1999) recovered a bacterium viz., Paenibacillus sp. strain from the rhizosphere of Sorghum bicolor plants inoculated with G. mosseae that showed noteworthy inhibitory activity against Phytophthora parasitica.
10 Challenges and Future Perspectives in AM Fungi Mediated Biocontrol
The worth of AMF for controlling of phytopathogens usually measured to be high, but there are restrictions in use of AMF as biological agents for control of phyto-diseases under field conditions. Budi et al. (1999) reported that there are few important consideration to deploy AMF in the field that include firstly, the production of large quantities of AMF quorum and secondly, occurrence of negative interactions between the introduced AMF and the indigenous AMF and microbial community. A host which is greatly mycotrophic or host cultivar may be considered as more appropriate for AMF propagation and imitation than one that is not highly mycotrophic (Bever et al. 1996; Xavier 1999). High soil Phosphorous levels also affect AM fungal colonization in host plants (Ratnayake et al. 1978; Bever et al. 1996).Bever et al. (1996) demonstrated that abundantly diverse AMF community ensures efficient biocontrol of phytopathogens. The diversity of AMF in soils has affected by the preference of host genotype and rotation, levels of fertilizer deployment (McGonigle and Miller 1996), tillage (McGonigle and Miller 1993), pesticide submission (Schreiner and Bethlenfalvay 1997), and the effect of associated quorum of microflora (Xavier and Germida 2003). Further, Johnson et al. (1992) emphasized that continuous cropping selectively improves the proliferation of AMF that lead to alterations in mycorrhizal biodiversity in the rhizosphere. Likewise, Xavier (1999) observed that use of sole meticulous AMF host out of an indigenous AMF residents resulting in the selective fortification of certain AMF species above others.
The approaches involve AM fungi have been deployed as biocontrol of phytopathogens. Sikora (1997) has been anticipated a holistic approach “natural system administration that derived biologically” for humanizing plant roots that adopts specific cropping patterns that uphold plant protection mechanisms such as tolerance and/or resistance to phytopathogens. This has been considered as practicable substitute to integrated pest administration and inundative approaches to the nonrhizospheric soil for biological control purposes, and underlines the implication of mycorrhizae in root growth and development. In addition, Bagyaraj (1984) recommended that assortment of AMF species for a preferred activity must be based on their capability for continued existence, forceful colonization of host roots and efficacy. It has been shown that AMF species originally recovered from test host roots are benign for numerous plant species (Vinayak and Bagyaraj 1990). It has been observed that inoculating plants with AM fungi induce resistance in plants. Cordier et al. (1998) pointed out that “priming” plants against phytopathogens by AMF inocula helps in protection of plants by employing systemic induced resistance. Herein, the inoculum wants to be functional to plantlets fashioned all the way through tissue culture technique. Boyetchko (1996) reported that an appliance of the bioagent prior to transplanting eliminates the requirement for composite formulations and relevance techniques then exhibits greater biocontrol commotion, reduces costs whereby reflects environment-friendly approach.
11 Conclusions
The AMF not only act as biocontrol of phytopathogens caused by detrimental flora and fauna, it also enhances crop efficiency using offered assets, avoiding battle development to chemicals and maintaining effluence conforming to sustenance of agroecosystem. It is speculated that in the near future, task of AM fungi must become one of the practicable and ecosystem friendly solutions to supervise plant diseases and reducing pathogen occurrence and quorum.
References
Alban, R., Guerrero, R., & Toro, M. (2013). Interactions between a root knot nematode (Meloidogyne exigua) and arbuscular mycorrhizae in coffee plant development (Coffea arabica). American Journal of Plant Sciences, 4, 19–23.
Augé, R. M. (2001). Water relations, drought and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Mycorrhiza, 11, 3–42.
Azcon-Aguilar, C., & Barea, J. M. (1992). Interactions between mycorrhizal fungi and other rhizosphere microorganisms. In M. F. Allen (Ed.), Mycorrhizal functioning: An integrative plant-fungal process (pp. 163–198). New York: Chapman and Hall.
Azcon-Aguilar, C., Jaizme-Vega, M. C., & Calvet, C. (2002). The contribution of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi for bioremediation. In S. Gianinazzi, H. Schuepp, J. M. Barea, & K. Haselwandter (Eds.), Mycorrhizal technology in agriculture. From genes to bioproducts (pp. 187–197). Berlin: Birkhauser Verlag.
Bago, B., Azcón-Aguilar, C., Goulet, A., & Piché, Y. (1998). Branched adsorbing structure (BAS): a feature of the extraradical mycelium of symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. The New Phytologist, 139, 375–388.
Bagyaraj, D. J. (1984). Biological interactions with VA mycorrhizal fungi. In C. L. Powell & D. J. Bagyaraj (Eds.), VA Mycorrhiza (pp. 131–153). Florida: CRC Press.
Bansal, M., & Mukerji, K. G. (1996). Root exudates and its rhizosphere biology. In K. G. Mukerji, V. P. Singh, & S. Dwivedi (Eds.), Concepts in applied microbiology and biotechnology (pp. 79–119). New Delhi: Aditya Books Pvt Ltd.
Barea, J. M., Pozo, M. J., Azcón, R., & Azcón-Aguilar, C. (2013). Microbial interactions in the rhizosphere. In F. de Bruijn (Ed.), Molecular microbial ecology of the rhizosphere (pp. 29–44). Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell.
Baum, C., El-Tohamy, W., & Gruda, N. (2015). Increasing the productivity and product quality of vegetable crops using arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: A review. Scientia Horticculturae (Amsterdam), 187, 131–141.
Bever, J. D., Morton, J. B., Antonovics, J., & Schultz, P. A. (1996). Host dependent sporulation and species diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a mown grassland. Journal of Ecology, 84, 71–82.
Bodker, L., Kjoller, R., & Rosendahl, S. (1998). Effect of phosphate and the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices on disease severity of root rot of peas (Pisum sativum) caused by Aphanomyces euteiches. Mycorrhiza, 8, 169–174.
Bodker, L., Kjoller, R., Kristensen, K., & Rosendahl, S. (2002). Interactions between indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Aphanomyces euteiches in field-grown pea. Mycorrhiza, 12, 7–12.
Bonfante, P., & Desirò, A. (2015). Arbuscular mycorrhizas: The lives of beneficial fungi and their plant host. In B. Lugtenberg (Ed.), Principles of plant-microbe interactions (pp. 235–245). Cham: Springer.
Boyetchko, S. M. (1996). Impact of soil microorganisms on weed biology and ecology. Phytoprotection, 77, 41–56.
Braga, M. R., et al. (1991). Phytoalexins induction in Rubiacea. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 17, 1079–1090.
Brendan, N. A., Hammerschmidt, R., & Safir, G. R. (1996). Postharvest suppression of potato dry rot (Fusarium sambucinum) in prenuclear minitubers by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal inoculum. American Potato Journal, 73, 509–515.
Brundrett, M. C. (2009). Mycorrhizal associations and other means of nutrition of vascular plants: Understanding the global diversity of host plants by resolving conflicting information and developing reliable means of diagnosis. Plant and Soil, 320, 37–77.
Budi, S. W., van Tuinen, D., Martinotti, G., & Gianinazzi, S. (1999). Isolation from the Sorghum bicolor mycorrhizosphere of a bacterium compatible with arbuscular mycorrhiza development and antagonistic towards soilborne fungal pathogens. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 65, 5148–5150.
Caron, M. (1989). Potential use of mycorrhizae in control of soil-borne diseases. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 11, 177–179.
Caron, M., Fortin, J. A., & Richard, C. (1985). Influence of substrate on the interaction of Glomus intraradices and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici on tomatoes. Plant and Soil, 87, 233–239.
Caron, M., Fortin, J. A., & Richard, C. (1986). Effect of phosphorus concentration and Glomus intraradices on Fusarium crown and root rot of tomatoes. Phytopathology, 76, 942–946.
Cordier, C., Gianinazzi, S., & Gianinazzi-Pearson, V. (1996). Colonisation patterns of root tissues by Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica related to reduced disease in mycorrhizal tomato. Plant and Soil, 185, 223–232.
Cordier, C., Pozo, M. J., Barea, J. M., Gianiniazzi, S., & Gianinazzi-Pearson, V. (1998). Cell defense responses associated with localized and systemic resistance to Phytophthora parasitica induced in tomato by an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus. Molecular Plant Microbe Interactions, 11, 1017–1028.
Dehne, H. W., & Schonbeck, F. (1979). The influence of endotrophic mycorrhiza on plant diseases. II. Phenol metabolism and lignification Fusarium oxysporum. Untersuchungen zum Einfluss der endotrophen Mycorrhiza auf Pflanzenkrankheiten. II. Phenolstoffwechsel und Lignifizierung. Phytopathologische Zeitschrift, 95, 210–216.
Druzhinina, I. S., Seidl-Seiboth, V., Herrera-Estrella, A., Horwitz, B. A., Kenerley, C. M., Monte, E., et al. (2011). Trichoderma: The genomics of opportunistic success. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 9, 749–759.
Elsen, A., Baimey, H., Swennen, R., & DeWaele, D. (2003). Relative mycorrhizal dependency and mycorrhiza nematode interaction in banana cultivars (Mus spp.) differing in nematode susceptibility. Plant and Soil, 256, 303–313.
Feldmann, F., & Boyle, C. (1998). Concurrent development of arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization and powdery mildew infection on three Begonia hiemalis cultivars. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, 105, 121–129.
Ferraz, L., & Brown, D. (2002). An introduction to nematodes—plant nematology. Sofia: Pensoft.
Filion, M., St. Arnaud, M., & Fortin, J. A. (1999). Direct interaction between the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices and different rhizosphere microorganisms. The New Phytologist, 141, 525–533.
Fitter, A. H., & Sanders, I. R. (1992). Interactions with the soil fauna. In M. F. Allen (Ed.), Mycorrhizal functioning: An integrative plant- fungal process (pp. 333–354). New York: Chapman and Hall.
Frankenberger, W. T., & Arshad, M. (1995). Microbial biosynthesis of auxins. In W. T. Frankenberger & M. Arshad (Eds.), Phytohormones in soil (pp. 35–71). New York: Marcel Dekker.
Frey-Klett, P., & Garbaye, J. (2005). Mycorrhiza helper bacteria: a promising model for the genomic analysis of fungal–bacterial interactions. The New Phytologist, 168, 4–8.
Fritz, M., Jakobsen, I., Lyngkjaer, M. F., Thordal-Christensen, H., & Pons- Kühnemann, J. (2006). Arbuscular mycorrhiza reduces susceptibility of tomatoto Alternaria solani. Mycorrhiza, 16, 413–419.
Garbaye, J. (1994). Tansley review No. 76 Helper bacteria: A new dimension to the mycorrhizal symbiosis. The New Phytologist, 128, 197–210.
Gheysen, G., & Mitchum, M. G. (2011). How nematodes manipulate plant development pathways for infection. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 14, 415–421.
Gianinazzi, S., & Schuepp, H. (1994). Impact of arbuscular mycorrhizas on sustainable agriculture and natural ecosystems (p. 226). Basel: Birkhauser Verlag.
Gianinazzi, S., Gollotte, A., Binet, M.-N., van Tuinen, D., Redecker, D., & Wipf, D. (2010). Agroecology: The key role of arbuscular mycorrhizas in ecosystem services. Mycorrhiza, 20, 519–530.
Graham, T. L., & Graham, M. Y. (1991). Cellular coordination of molecular responses in plant defense. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions, 4, 415–422.
Graham, J. H., Leonard, R. T., & Menge, J. A. (1981). Membrane mediated decrease in root exudation responsible for inhibition of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza formation. Plant Physiology, 68, 548–552.
Grayston, S. J., Vaughan, D., & Jones, D. (1997). Rhizosphere carbon flow in trees, in comparison with annual plants: The importance of root exudation and its impact on microbial activity and nutrient availability. Applied Soil Ecology, 5, 29–56.
Gutjahr, C., & Parniske, M. (2013). Cell and developmental biology of arbuscular mycorrhiza symbiosis. Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology, 29, 593–617.
Gutjahr, C., & Paszkowski, U. (2013). Multiple control levels of root system remodeling in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Frontiers in Plant Science, 4, 204.
Hage-Ahmed, K., Moyses, A., Voglgruber, A., Hadacek, F., & Steinkellner, S. (2013). Alterations in root exudation of intercropped tomato mediated by the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae and the soil borne pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici. Journal of Phytopathology, 161, 763–773.
Hammer, E. C., Pallon, J., Wallander, H., & Olsson, P. A. (2011). Tit for tat? A mycorrhizal fungus accumulates phosphorus under low plant carbon availability. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 76, 236–244.
Handelsman, J., & Stabb, E. V. (1996). Biocontrol of soilborne plant pathogens. Plant Cell, 8, 1855–1869.
Hao, Z., Fayolle, L., Van Tuinen, D., Chatagnier, O., Li, X., & Gianinazzi, S. (2012). Local and systemic mycorrhiza-induced protection against the ectoparasitic nematode Xiphinema index involves priming of defence gene responses in grapevine. Journal of Experimental Botany, 63, 3657–3672.
Harrier, L. A. (2001). The arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis: A molecular review of the fungal dimension. The Journal of Experimental Medicine, 52, 469–478.
Harrier, L. A., & Watson, C. A. (2004). The potential role of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in the bioprotection of plants against soil-borne pathogens in organic and/or other sustainable farming systems (Special issue: Current research at the Scottish Agricultural College). Pest Management Science, 60, 149–157.
Hodge, A., Campbell, C. D., & Fitter, A. H. (2001). An arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus accelerates decomposition and acquires nitrogen directly from organic matter. Nature, 413, 297–299.
Hwang, S. F. (1988). Effect of VA mycorrhizae and metalaxyl on growth of alfalfa seedlings in soils from fields with “alfalfa sickness” in Alberta. Plant Disease, 72, 448–452.
Jabaji-Hare, S. H., & Stobbs, L. W. (1984). Electron microscopic examination of tomato roots coinfected with Glomus sp. and tobacco mosaic virus. Phytopathology, 74, 277–279.
Jaizme-Vega, M. C., Sosa-Hernandez, B., Hernandez, J. M., & Galan- Sauco, V. (1998). Interaction of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and the soil pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense on the first stages of micropropagated Grande Naine banana. Acta Horticulturae, 490, 285–295.
Jansa, J., Mozafar, A., & Frossard, E. (2003). Long distance transport of P and Zn through the hyphae of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus in symbiosis with maize. Agronomie, 23, 481–488.
Jeffries, P., & Barea, J. M. (2012). Arbuscular mycorrhiza-a key component of sustainable plant-soil ecosystems. In B. Hock (Ed.), The mycota (pp. 51–75). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
Jeffries, P., Gianinazzi, S., Perotto, S., Turnau, K., & Barea, J. M. (2003). The contribution of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungí in sustainable maintenance of plant health and soil fertility. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 37, 1–16.
Johnson, N. C., Copeland, P. J., Crookston, R. K., & Pfleger, F. L. (1992). Mycorrhizae: Possible explanation for yield decline with continuous corn and soybean. Agronomy Journal, 84, 387–390.
Johnson, D., Leake, J. R., Ostle, N., Ineson, P., & Read, D. J. (2002a). In situ (CO2)–C-13 pulse-labelling of upland grassland demonstrates a rapid pathway of carbon flux from arbuscular mycorrhizal mycelia to the soil. New Phytologist, 153, 327–334.
Johnson, D., Leake, J. R., & Read, D. J. (2002b). Transfer of recent photosynthate into mycorrhizal mycelium of an upland grassland: Short-term respiratory losses and accumulation of 14C. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 34, 1521–1524.
Jones, J. D. G., & Dangl, J. L. (2006). The plant immune system. Nature, 444, 323–329.
Jones, D. L., Hodge, A., & Kuzyakov, Y. (2004). Plant and mycorrhizal regulation of rhizo deposition. The New Phytologist, 163, 459–480.
Jones, J. T., Haegeman, A., Danchin, E. G. J., Gaur, H. S., Helder, J., MGK, J., et al. (2013). Top10plant-parasiticnematodesinmolecularplantpathology. Molecular Plant Pathology, 14, 946–961.
Jung, S. C., Martinez-Medina, A., Lopez-Raez, J. A., & Pozo, M. J. (2012). Mycorrhiza-induced resistance and priming of plant defenses. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 38, 651–664.
Khan, A. G., Kuek, C., Chaudhry, T. M., Khoo, C. S., & Hayes, W. J. (2000). Role of plants, mycorrhizae and phytochelators in heavy metal contaminated land remediation. Chemosphere, 41, 197–207.
Kobra, N., Jalil, K., & Youbert, G. (2009). Effects of three Glomus species as biocontrol agents against Verticillium-induced wilt in cotton. Journal of Plant Protection Research, 49, 185–189.
Kulkarni, S. A., Kulkarni, S., Sreenivas, M. N., & Kulkarni, S. (1997). Interaction between vesicular-arbuscular (VA) mycorrhizae and Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. in groundnut. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Science, 10, 919–921.
Lambais, M. R., & Mehdy, M. C. (1995). Differential expression of defense-related genes in arbuscular mycorrhiza. Canadian Journal of Botany, 73, S533–S540.
Lerat, S., Lapointe, L., Piché, Y., & Vierheilig, H. (2003). Strains colonizing barley roots. Canadian Journal of Botany, 81, 886–889.
Li, S. L., Zhao, S. J., Zhao, L. Z., Li, S. L., Zhao, S. J., & Zhao, L. Z. (1997). Effects of VA mycorrhizae on the growth of eggplant and cucumber and control of diseases. Acta Phytophylacica Sinica, 24, 117–120.
Linderman, R. G. (1988). Mycorrhizal interactions with the rhizosphere microflora-The Mycorrhizosphere effect. Proceedings of the American Phytopathology Society, 78(3), 366–371.
Linderman, R. G. (1994). Role of VAM fungi in biocontrol. In F. L. Pfleger & R. G. Linderman (Eds.), Mycorrhizae and plant health (pp. 1–27). St. Paul: The American Phytopathological Society.
Lioussanne, L., Jolicoeur, M., & St-Arnaud, M. (2008). Mycorrhizal colonization with Glomus intraradices and development stage of transformed tomato roots significantly modify the chemotactic response of zoospores of the pathogen Phytophthora nicotianae. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 40, 2217–2224.
López-Ráez, J. A., Charnikhova, T., Fernández, I., Bouwmeester, H., & Pozo, M. J. (2011a). Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis decreases strigolactone production in tomato. Journal of Plant Physiology, 168, 294–297.
López-Ráez, J. A., Pozo, M. J., & García-Garrido, J. M. (2011b). Strigolactones: A cry for help in the rhizosphere. Botany, 89, 513–522.
Maillet, F., Poinsot, V., André, O., Puech-Pagés, V., Haouy, A., Gueunier, M., Cromer, L., Giraudet, D., FormeyD, N. A., Martinez, E. A., Driguez, H., Bécard, G., & Dénarié, J. (2011). Fungal lipochitooligosaccharide symbiotic signals in arbuscular mycorrhiza. Nature, 469, 58–64.
McArthur, D. A., & Knowles, N. R. (1992). Resistance responses of potato to vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi under varying abiotic phosphorus levels. Plant Physiology, 100, 341–351.
McGonigle, T. P., & Miller, M. H. (1993). Mycorrhizal development and phosphorus absorption in maize under conventional and reduced tillage. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 57, 1002–1006.
McGonigle, T. P., & Miller, M. H. (1996). Mycorrhizae, phosphorus absorption, and yield of maize in response to tillage. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 60, 1856–1861.
Minerdi, D., Fani, R., Gallo, R., Boarino, A., & Bonfante, P. (2001). Nitrogen fixation genes in an endosymbiotic Burkholderia strain. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67, 725–732.
Morandi, D. (1996). Occurrence of phytoalexins and phenolic compounds in endomycorrhizal interactions, and their potential role in biological control. Plant and Soil, 185, 241–251.
Mukerji, K. G., Manoharachary, C., & Chamola, B. P. (2002). Techniques in mycorrhizal studies (1st ed., pp. 285–296). London/Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Nemec, S. (1994). Soil microflora associated with pot cultures of Glomus intraradix-infected Citrus reticulata. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 1, 299–306.
Nemec, S., & Myhre, D. (1984). Virus–Glomus etunicatum interactions in citrus rootstocks [Sour orange, Citrus macrophylla, Duncan grapefruit, potential of mycorrhizal citrus rootstock seedlings to protect against growth suppression by viruses]. Journal of Plant Disease, 68, 311–314.
Newsham, K. K., Fitter, A. H., & Watkinson, A. R. (1995). Arbuscular mycorrhiza protect an annual grass from root pathogenic fungi in the field. Journal of Ecology, 83, 991–1000.
Nicol, J. M., Turner, S. J., Coyne, D. L., den Nijs, L., Hockland, S., & Tahna Maafi, Z. (2011). Current nematode threats to world agriculture. In J. Jones, G. Gheysen, & C. Fenoll (Eds.), Genomics and molecular genetics of plant-Nematode interactions (pp. 347–367). Heidelberg: Springer.
Norman, J., Atkinson, D., & Hooker, J. (1996). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal- induced alteration to root Architecture in strawberry and induced resistance to the root pathogen Phytophthora fragariae. Plant and Soil, 185, 191–198.
Nuccio, E. E., Hodge, A., Pett-Ridge, J., Herman, D. J., Weber, P. K., & Firestone, M. K. (2013). An arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus significantly modifies the soil bacterial community and nitrogen cycling during litter decomposition. Environmental Microbiology, 15, 1870–1881.
Otto, G., & Winkler, H. (1995). Colonization of rootlets of some species of Rosaceae by actinomycetes, endotrophic mycorrhiza, and endophytic nematodes in a soil conducive to specific cherry replant disease. Zeitschrift fur Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, 102, 63–68.
Paulitz, T. C., & Linderman, R. G. (1989). Interactions between fluorescent pseudomonads and VA mycorrhizal fungi. The New Phytologist, 113, 37–45.
Paxton, J. D. (1981). Phytoalexins- A working redefinition. Journal of Phytopathology, 101(2), 106–109.
Perry, R. N., & Moens, M. (2011). Introduction to plant-parasitic nematodes; modes of parasitism. In T. Jones, L. Gheysen, & C. Fenoll (Eds.), Genomics and molecular genetics of plant–nematode interactions (pp. 3–20). Heidelberg: Springer.
Peterson, R. L., Massicotte, H. B., & Melville, L. H. (2004). Mycorrhizas: Anatomy and cell biology. Ottawa: NRC Research Press.
Philippot, L., Raaijmakers, J. M., Lemanceau, P., & van der Putten, W. H. (2013). Going back to the roots: The microbial ecology of the rhizosphere. Nature Reviews. Microbiology, 11, 789–799.
Pozo, M. J., & Azcón-Aguilar, C. (2007). Unraveling mycorrhiza-induced resistance. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 10, 393–398.
Pozo, M. J., Azcon-Aguilar, C., Dumas-Gaudot, E., & Barea, J. M. (1999). β-1,3-glucanase activities in tomato roots inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and/or Phytophthora parasitica and their possible involvement in bioprotection. Plant Science, 141, 149–157.
Pozo, M. J., Cordier, C., Dumas-Gaudot, E., Gianinazzi, S., Barea, J. M., & Azcon-Aguilar, C. (2002). Localized versus systemic effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on defence responses to Phytophthora infection in tomato plants. Journal of Experimental Botany, 53, 525–534.
Prashanthi, S. K., Kulkarni, S., Sreenivasa, M. N., & Kulkarni, S. (1997). Integrated management of root rot disease of safflower caused by Rhizoctonia bataticola. Environment and Ecology, 15, 800–802.
Puppi, G., Azcón, R., & Hoflich, G. (1994). Management of positive interactions of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi with essential groups of soil microorganisms. In S. Gianinazzi & H. Schouepp (Eds.), Impact of arbuscular mycorrhizas on sustainable agriculture and natural ecosystems (pp. 201–215). Basel: Birkhäuser.
Rambelli, A. (1973). The rhizosphere of mycorrhizae. In G. L. Marks & T. T. Koslowski (Eds.), Ectomycorrhizae (pp. 299–343). New York: Academic.
Ratnayake, M., Leonard, R. T., & Menge, J. A. (1978). Root exudation in relation to supply of phosphorus and its possible relevance to mycorrhiza formation. The New Phytologist, 81, 543–552.
Ravnskov, S., & Jakobsen, I. (1995). Functional compatibility in arbuscular mycorrhizas measured as hyphal P transport to the plant. The New Phytologist, 129, 611–618.
Read, D. J., & Perez-Moreno, J. (2003). Mycorrhizas and nutrient cycling in ecosystems – A journey towards relevance? The New Phytologist, 157, 475–492.
Rhodes, L. H., & Gerdemann, J. W. (1975). Phosphate uptake zones of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal onions. The New Phytologist, 75, 555–561.
Salvioli, A., & Bonfante, P. (2013). Systems biology and omics tools: A cooperation for next-generation mycorrhizal studies. Plant Science, 203–204, 107–114.
Schaarschmidt, S., Gresshoff, P. M., & Hause, B. (2013). Analyzing the soybeantranscriptomeduringautoregulationofmycorrhizationidentifies the transcription factorsGmNF-YA1a/bas positive regulators of arbuscular mycorrhization. Genome Biology, 14, R62.
Schonbeck, F., & Spengler, G. (1979). The detection of TMV in mycorrhizal cells of the tomato plant by means of immunofluorescence. Phytopathologische Zeitschrift, 94, 84–86.
Schreiner, R. P., & Bethlenfalvay, G. J. (1997). Mycorrhizae, biocides, and biocontrol: 3. Effects of three different fungicides on developmental stages of three AM fungi. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 24, 18–26.
Schübler, A., & Walker, C. (2011). Evolution of the ‘plant-symbiotic’ fungal phylum, Glomeromycota. In S. Póggeler & J. Wostemeyer (Eds.), Evolution of fungi and fungal like organisms (pp. 163–185). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
Schübler, A., Gehrig, H., Schwarzott, D., & Walker, E. (2001). Analysis of partial Glomales SSU rRNA gene sequences: Implications for primer design and phylogeny. Mycological Research, 105, 5–15.
Shalaby, A. M., & Hanna, M. M. (1998). Preliminary studies on interactions between VA mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae, Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Pseudomonas syringae in soybean plants. Acta Microbiologica Polonica, 47, 385–391.
Sharma, D. D., Govindaiah, S., Katiyar, R. S., Das, P. K., Janardhan, L., Bajpai, A. K., Choudhry, P. C., & Janardhan, L. (1995). Effect of VA-mycorrhizal fungi on the incidence of major mulberry diseases. Indian Journal of Sericulture, 34, 34–37.
Sharma, S., Dohroo, N. P., & Sharma, S. (1997). Management of ginger yellows through organic amendment, fungicide seed treatment and biological methods. Indian Cocoa Arecanut Spice Journal, 21, 29–30.
Shaul, O., Galili, S., Volpin, H., Ginzberg, I., Elad, Y., Chet, I., & Kapulnik, Y. (1999). Mycorrhiza-induced changes in disease severity and PR protein expression in tobacco leaves. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions, 12, 1000–1007.
Sikora, R. A. (1997). Biological system management in the rhizosphere an inside-out/outside-in perspective. Mededelingen – Faculteit Landbouwkundige en Toegepaste Biologische Wetenschappen, Universiteit Gent, 62, 105–112.
Sikora, R. A., Pocasangre, L., FeldeZum, A., Niere, B., Vu, T. T., & Dababat, A. A. (2008). Mutualistic endophytic fungi and in planta suppressiveness to plant-parasitic nematodes. Biological Control, 46, 15–23.
Singh, L. P., Gill, S. S., & Tuteja, N. (2011). Unraveling the role of fungal symbionts in plant abiotic stress tolerance. Plant Signaling & Behavior, 6, 175–191.
Slezack, S., Dumas-Gaudot, E., Paynot, M., & Gianinazzi, S. (2000). Is a fully established arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis required for bioprotection of Pisum sativum roots against Aphanomyces euteiches. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions, 13, 238–241.
Smith, F. A., & Smith, S. E. (2011). What is the significance of the arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of many economically important crop plants? Plant and Soil, 348, 63–79.
Smith, S. E., & Smith, F. A. (2012). Fresh perspectives on the roles of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in plant nutrition and growth. Mycologia, 104, 1–13.
Sood, G. S. (2003). Chemotactic response of plant-growth-promoting bacteria towards roots of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal tomato plants. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 45, 219–227.
Srnith, S. E., & Read, D. I. (2008). Mycorrhizal symbiosis (3rd ed.). New York: Elsevier/Academic.
St-Arnaud, M., Hamel, C., Vimard, B., Caron, M., & Fortin, J. A. (1995). Altered growth of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. chrysanthemiin an in vitro dual culture system with the vesicular ar366buscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices growing on Daucus carota transformed roots. Mycorrhiza, 5, 431–438.
Steinkellner, S., Lendzemo, V., Langer, I., Schweiger, P., Khaosaad, T., Toussaint, J.-P., et al. (2007). Flavonoids and strigolactones in root exudates as signals in symbiotic and pathogenic plant-fungus interactions. Molecules, 12, 1290–1306.
Stoffelen, R., Verlinden, R., Xuyen, N. T., DeWaele, D., & Swennen, R. (2000). Host plant response of Eumusa and Australimusa bananas(Musa spp.) to migratory endoparasitic and root-knot nematodes. Nematology, 2, 907–916.
Sundaresan, P., Raja, N. U., & Gunasekaran, P. (1993). Induction and accumulation of phytoalexins in cowpea roots infected with a mycorrhizal fungus Glomus fasciculatum and their resistance to Fusarium wilt disease. Journal of Biosciences, 18, 291–301.
Takahashi, T., Katano, H., & Yoshikawa, N. (1994). Evidence for vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal infection in viroid-infected hop root tissues. Zeitschrift fur Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, 101, 267–271.
Tisdall, J. M., & Oades, J. M. (1979). Stabilization of soil aggregates by the root systems of rye grass. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 17, 429–441.
Torres-Barragan, A., Zavaleta-Mejia, E., Gonzalez-Chavez, C., & Ferrera-Cerrato, R. (1996). The use of arbuscular mycorrhizae to control onion white rot (Sclerotium cepivorum Berk.) underfield conditions. Mycorrhiza, 6, 253–258.
Trotta, A., Varese, G. C., Gnavi, E., Fusconi, A., Sampo, S., & Berta, G. (1996). Interactions between the soil borne pathogen Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica and the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae in tomato plants. Plant and Soil, 185, 199–209.
van der Heijden, M. G. A., Martin, F. M., Selosse, M. A., & Sanders, I. R. (2015). Mycorrhizal ecology and evolution: The past, the present, and the future. The New Phytologist, 205, 1406–1423.
VanEtten, H. D., Sandrock, R., Wasmann, C., Soby, S., Mccluskey, K., & Wang, P. (1995). Detoxification of phytoanticipins and phytoalexins by phytopathogenic fungi. Canadian Journal of Botany, 73, 518–525.
Vierheilig, H., Steinkellner, S., & Khaosaad, T. (2008). The biocontrol effect of mycorrhization on soilborne fungal pathogens and the autoregulation of the AM symbiosis: One mechanism, two effects? In A. Varma (Ed.), Mycorrhiza (pp. 307–320). Berlin: Springer.
Vinayak, K., & Bagyaraj, D. J. (1990). Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae screened for Troyer citrange. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 9, 311–314.
Vos, C. (2012). Arbusculaire mycorrhizenschimmels in de biocontrole van plantenparasitaire nematoden. Leuven: University of Leuven (KULeuven).
Vos, C. M., Yang, Y., DeConinck, B., & Cammue, B. P. A. (2014). Fungal(-like) biocontrol organisms in tomato disease control. Biological Control, 74, 65–81.
Waschkies, C., Schropp, A., & Marschner, H. (1994). Relations between grapevine replant disease and root colonization of grapevine (Vitis sp.) by fluorescent pseudomonads and endomycorrhizal fungi. Plant and Soil, 162, 219–227.
Wesemael, W., Viaene, N., & Moens, M. (2011). Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in Europe. Nematology, 13, 3–16.
Wyss, P., Boller, T., & Wiemken, A. (1991). Phytoalexin response is elicited by a pathogen (Rhizoctonia solani) but not by a mycorrhizal fungus (Glomus mosseae) in soybean roots. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 47(4), 395–399.
Xavier, L. J. C. (L. Johnny). (1999). Effects of interactions between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Rhizobium leguminosarum on pea and lentil. PhD dissertation. Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan
Xavier, L. J. C., & Germida, J. J. (2003). Bacteria associated with Glomus clarum spores influence mycorrhizal activity. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 35, 471–478.
Yang, H., Zhang, Q., Dai, Y., Liu, Q., Tang, J., Bian, X., et al. (2014). Effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on plant growth depend on root system: A meta-analysis. Plant and Soil, 389, 361–374.
Zamioudis, C., & Pieterse, C. M. J. (2012). Modulation of host immunity by beneficial microbes. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions, 25, 139–150.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the Director, University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra (Haryana, India) and Management of Ambala College of Engineering and Applied Research, Ambala (Haryana, India), for providing necessary infrastructure to carry out literature search.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Jain, P., Pundir, R.K. (2019). Biocontrol of Soil Phytopathogens by Arbuscular Mycorrhiza – A Review. In: Varma, A., Choudhary, D. (eds) Mycorrhizosphere and Pedogenesis. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6480-8_14
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6480-8_14
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-6479-2
Online ISBN: 978-981-13-6480-8
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)