Space and Security Programs in the Largest European Countries

Abstract

This chapter presents space and security programs in the five largest European countries and indicates their main priorities and trends. Recent policy developments in European countries, this have influenced national and institutional space security programs. The current chapter addresses different types of space activities and programs in the fields of Earth observation (EO), Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR), Satellite communication (SATCOM), positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT), and Space Situational Awareness (SSA). The countries presented are France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom (UK).

Introduction

The increased need for security in Europe and for Europe’s space activities has led to several activities and programs developed in aerospace and defense. The main actors in Europe engaging in space and security activities are the European countries, the European Union (EU), and the European Space Agency (ESA). Chap. 61, “Institutional Space Security Programs in Europe” describes how security and defense policies are progressively and gradually being supported by space programs of the EU and ESA, while the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is also gradually involved. The European countries’ space security policies are to a large extent determined by national needs and priorities, as explained in Chap. 25, “Space and Security Policy in Selected European Countries.” In addition, the policies are influenced by the overall space and security governance and their participation in relevant organizations as explained in Chap. 23, “Strategic Overview of European Space and Security Governance.”

The current chapter addresses space and security budgets, activities, and programs of selected European countries in the fields of Earth observation (EO), Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR), Satellite communication (SATCOM), positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT), and Space Situational Awareness (SSA). European countries may be distinguished not only on the basis of their membership to space and security related organizations but also their space budget. In the absence of an official grouping, their ESA annual budget and their defense expenditure as a share of their Growth Domestic Product (GDP) are used for their classification (Sagath et al. 2018).

The group presented in this chapter includes ESA Member States with a GDP above €1.2 trillion and an annual ESA space budget (2018 ESA budget) above €200 million: France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the UK (Sagath et al. 2018). This chapter complements the chapters on medium-size and smaller European countries presented in this section of the handbook. The content is up to date until January 2019.

France

Space and Security Budget

France had an estimated defense expenditure of €42.748 billion or 1.84% of GDP in 2018, below the NATO guideline of 2% of GDP. 24.4% of the 2018 defense budget was allocated to equipment expenditure (NATO 2019). The Bill on Military Planning 2019–2025 foresees an expenditure of €295 billion on defense for the period 2019–2025 (French Republic 2018b; RTL INFO 2018). The French Senate adopted on 29 May 2018 the Military Program Law (Loi de Programmation Militaire - LPM) 2019–2025 on military funding program. The LPM 2019–2025 aims to renew the French armed forces and end decades of falling defense spending to reach NATO’s guideline of 2% of GDP by 2025, according to the French Ministry of the Armed Forces. The final text of the LMP 2019–2025 was agreed by a joint committee of the National Assembly and Senate (Le Figaro 2018). President Macron formally signed the LPM on 13 July 2018. The French Senate and lower house National Assembly had previously examined the draft law, and both had voted in favor of the bill. One of the amendments added to the bill was an annual parliamentary review of spending (Defence News 2018a).

French government expenditure for space-related activities is the largest in Europe. It amounted to €2.8 billion in 2018, of which €2.23 billion covered civil activities and €569 million defense activities (Euroconsult 2019). French Space Agency - CNES’s budget for the national program amounted to €1.2 billion in 2018, financed by the Ministry of Research to support innovation and competitiveness. The civil space budget is divided between the national program (€1.187 million in 2018) and the contributions to ESA (€963 million) and to EUMETSAT (€84 million). The defense budget fluctuates according to procurement cycles. Telecommunication was the primary application in 2018 for the development of Syracuse IV. The Military Program Law plans €3.6 billion investment over 2019–2025 to replace the current systems and acquire electronic intelligence capacity (Euroconsult 2019). Defense space expenditure was estimated at €569 million in 2018, primarily channeled toward telecommunications, Earth observation, technology, and space security. In 2018 the Ministry of the Armed Forces allocated €60 million for the CERES (Capacité de Renseignement Électromagnétique Spatiale) military electronic intelligence mission (Euroconsult 2019).

Space and Security Activities and Programs

Earth Observation (EO): Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)

The civilian satellite SPOT 1- Systeme Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre (Probative System for Earth Observation) was developed and launched under the responsibility of scientific staff from CNES (Schrogl et al. 2015). The dissemination of information was allocated to the company Spot Image, which was created to distribute the images of SPOT. SPOT 4 was launched in March 1998 from Kourou. It featured two imaging instruments offering panchromatic and multispectral acquisition mode. SPOT 4 stopped functioning in July 2013. SPOT 5 was launched on 4 May 2002 from Kourou and stopped functioning in March 2015 (Schrogl et al. 2015). SPOT 6, launched in December 2012, and SPOT 7, launched in June 2014, share orbits with Pléiades. The SPOT satellites are dual-use civilian satellites, related to military programs. The United States (US) military has been a major purchaser of SPOT series commercial imagery. SPOT has been transferred to Airbus Defence and Space for operations and development of replacement capabilities (Schrogl et al. 2015).

Hélios is a French optical satellite imaging constellation for military reconnaissance. The Hélios-1 program was the result of a cooperation. of Francewith Italy, and Spain. The first-generation Hélios satellites, Hélios 1A and 1B, were launched in 1995 and 1999. Featuring daily revisit capability, the satellites had a resolution of about 1 meter (IAI 2003). The Hélios program was expected to reach a new phase with the joint development of Hélios-2by France and Horus by Germany: Hélios in the optical field and Horus in that of radar. Due to political and budgetary difficulties in Germany, the project remained on a national level. France consequently decided to pursue the Hélios-2program alone with fitting in bilateral cooperation along the way (IAI 2003). The second-generation of the program began with the launch of Hélios 2A on 18 December 2004. Hélios 2B was launched on 18 December 2009. Hélios 2B is managed by the French procurement agency Direction générale de l’armement (DGA). DGA has delegated the responsibility for the space segment to CNES. The Hélios-2 satellites – H-2A and H-2B – provide defense users with high-resolution imagery from low Earth orbit (LEO). Hélios-2 is a cooperation program of France with Belgium, Spain, Greece as co-owners, and Italy and Germany via exchange of data. Hélios-2 is the only fully military optical Earth observation system currently in operation in Europe. The Hélios system is operated by CMOS in collaboration with the CNES Toulouse Station Retention Centre (CMP). Belgium and Spain participate in the program since 2001, Italy since 2005 and Greece since 2007. France’s stake remains at 90% (French Senate 2018; Schrogl et al. 2015).

Pléiades is the dual-use successor to France’s SPOT optical Earth observation satellite constellation and was funded through the Defense Budget Program 191, a dual-use research program (French National Assembly 2016; French Republic 2018a). Access to data from the two Pléiades satellites is prioritized to military users. The Pléiades satellites are in a sun-synchronous orbit. The first Pléiades satellite was launched on 17 December 2011 on a Europeanized Soyuz rocket from Kourou. The second one was launched on 2 December 2012. Austria, Belgium, Spain, and Sweden are participating to the costs of the system in exchange for access to data. The Pléiades satellites contribute also to the Optical and Radar Federated Earth Observation system (ORFEO) (Schrogl et al. 2015). Pléiades imagery is today commercially available through Airbus GeoStore. Pléiades High Resolution (PHR) provides imagery for dual-use with priority for defense users. Imagery to civil users is provided, complementary with Hélios-2, via public service delegation to the commercial provider Airbus Defence and Space. Pléiades has been led and run by France in cooperation with Austria, Belgium, Spain, and Sweden. There is also cooperation with Germany via capacity exchange – programming rights – on SAR-Lupe and cooperation with Italy on Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) via exchange of data on the dual-use Cosmo-SkyMed (French Senate 2018). In 2019, Airbus and CNES agreed to co-finance a constellation of four Earth observation satellites with a dual purpose for the next 12 years aiming at “providing imagery to the French government, including scientific and military users, and imaging capacity for Airbus to commercialize” (Space News 2019). The first two Airbus-built Pléiades Neo imaging satellites have started comprehensive environmental testing (Airbus 2020).

The Segment sol d’observation PHAROS (Portail d’Acces au Renseignement de l’Observation Spatiale) application is a virtual federation of the military Hélios-2, SAR-Lupe, COSMO-SkyMed, and Pléiades systems. PHAROS is enabled through an access portal for imagery intelligence – equally in stationary and deployable configurations – and has been operational since June 2012. PHAROS provides multisensor unified for end users in France and on theatre of operations to all systems, including German and Italian assets. In return of the programming rights negotiated with Italy and Germany on their assets, France has ceded programming rights on Hélios-2 (French Senate 2018).

The multinational space-based imaging system (MUSIS) was originally a European surveillance program intended to supply visible, radar and infrared imagery and replace previous national platforms (Bird & Bird 2016). MUSIS today revolves around bilateral cooperation established between France and partnering countries. The Composante Spatiale Optique (CSO) is the French space component. France awarded in 2011 a contract to Airbus Defence and Space for CSO-1 and CSO-2 for €795 million. CSO applies to defense users only, with three identical optical satellites. CSO-1 will perform traditional surveillance tasks where CSO-2 will permit target identification. CSO-3 will improve revisiting time. France provides co-funding opportunities to other members of CSO in return for optical imagery. Germany agreed in 2015 to fund 2/3 of CSO-3 for an amount of €210 million. Belgium and Sweden are also cooperating. MUSIS has a similar functionality foreseen as in PHAROS with access to SARah system (Germany), COSMO-SkyMed Second Generation system (Italy), Ingenio system (Spain) and the French legacy components (Hélios). The first CSO high-resolution optical satellite fleet was launched in December 2018, while it is expected to be fully deployed in 2021. The German-French agreement from March 2015 establishing cooperation between radar and optical Earth observation facilitated the implementation of MUSIS (French Senate 2018).

The OTOS program (Super-Resolved Optical Earth Observation) is a preparatory program for future generation space satellites for Earth observation and defense running since 2011 – under the name CXCI – until 2020. OTOS is a technological demonstrator that aims to prepare the necessary technologies on the one hand for a future high-resolution post-Pléiades Earth observation program and on the other hand for the rest of the CSO Defence Programme (French Republic 2018a). The CO3D program – optical constellation in 3D – is a constellation of optical mini satellites answering the needs of a of digital terrain model mission and a 3D global model mission for civilian and military needs. These two objectives are based on the same concept of a small satellite with a competitive recurrent cost and a system architecture designed. The launch is foreseen in 2022. The constellation aims to provide continuity for the stereo imagery currently provided by Pléiades (French Republic 2018a).

Regarding big data, the French Ministry of the Armed Forces has defined the requirements for a digital platform to optimize the use of big data capabilities. In April 2018, and following a competitive tender, the French procurement agency DGA selected three companies or groups of companies to take part in the first phase of the ARTEMIS (Architecture de Traitement et d’Exploitation Massive de l’Information multi-Sources) innovation partnership. ARTEMIS is a 15-year framework agreement aiming to provide sovereign big data solutions to stay abreast exponential growth in data volumes, transmissions speeds, and formats in the design of information systems (Thales 2018). Six use cases of the project will enable the Ministry of the Armed Forces to take advantage of new capabilities resulting from digital technologies for knowledge sharing, better monitoring of soldiers’ health, predictive maintenance of equipment, treatment and visualization of strategic and tactical information (DGA 2019a).

In the context of maritime security, the 2014/2015 project Trimaran concerns a concept of a one-stop shop for access, including a range of satellite services for maritime surveillance. In 2016, the French Navy awarded a 4-year contract to a consortium of Telespazio France and Airbus Defence and Space to provide a satellite-based maritime surveillance service. Under Trimaran 2, a follow-up to Trimaran 1, maritime zone commanders will have access to a portal for surveillance services using optical and radar imaging and AIS (Automatic Identification System) data to enhance the effectiveness of their national maritime missions. The radar and optical satellite images will be interpreted by Telespazio France and Airbus Defence and Space. Reports will then be produced and sent to the users indicating the types of vessels identified and their position, speed , and direction (Airbus 2016).

Satellite Communications (SATCOM)

France’s first steps in SATCOM systems were the experimental satellites Symphonie and Telecom 1. The current French military communications programs are implemented through the French Syracuse program and the French-Italian program Athena-Fidus (for the latter see more under the section for Italy).

The Syracuse III System (Système de Radiocommunication Utilisant un Satellite) is the first exclusive French military satellite communications system, with extremely high frequency (EHF) capacity and a global coverage from Mexico to Indonesia, for at least three theatres of operations simultaneously. Syracuse IIIA military telecommunications satellite was launched in October 2005 and was scheduled to operate for at least 12 years. Syracuse IIIB was launched in 2006. A third satellite, SICRAL 2 was realized in cooperation with Italy and deployed in 2015 with the aim to create redundancy and increase coverage. Syracuse III is maintained to assure transition with Syracuse IV. The SATCOM capability responds to the need identified in the 2013 White Paper on Security and Defence and assures interoperability with NATO (French Senate 2018). In 2004, the French procurement agency DGA appointed Thales as prime contractor for the Syracuse III ground segment. The contract included the development, acquisition, and through-life support services of the full complement of Syracuse III communication systems and equipment. Thales provided service availability under operational level agreements until 2020 and delivered a total of 600 SATCOM terminals. The contract value amounted to €1.3 billion. Under the Syracuse III program, Thales developed the M21 modem, which successfully completed testing under real jamming conditions in 2003. The modem is compliant with NATO standardization agreement standards. Aristote is one of the central systems in the Syracuse III ground system. Aristote provides communications services between France and units deployed in the theatre of operations and optimizes the transmission capacity of the Syracuse III satellites. The Aristote system’s capacity provides the armed forces with the interoperability they require during out-of-area deployments of joint multinational forces on several operational exercises (Defence Aerospace 2004).

Syracuse IV was formerly known as COMSAT-NG. In September 2012, the French procurement agency DGA awarded contracts to Thales Alenia Space and Airbus Defence and Space to conduct design studies on the next-generation military satellite communications system as per the military requirements. In December 2015 the consortium agreed to construct and supply the COMSAT-NG telecommunications system. The contract included construction of a ground control segment and Ka-band anchor stations, modernization of ground stations in France, and options for additional satellites. The consortium provided also operations and maintenance support. Thales Alenia Space owns 65% stake in the consortium, while the remaining is owned by Airbus Defence and Space. (French Republic 2018a).

In June 2019, the Ministry of the Armed Forces decided to proceed with the realization of the ground segment of the satellite communications program Syracuse IV. Accordingly, DGA signed a contract with Thales to design and build this capacity. This system brings together space assets (two satellites) and ground assets for users (terminals) and the operator of military networks (land network connection stations, management centers). The Syracuse IVA and Syracuse IVB satellites, ordered at the end of 2015, will be put into service before the end of 2022 to take over from the Syracuse IIIA and IIIB satellites launched in 2005 and 2006. They will be joined by 2030 by a third satellite optimized for use by aeronautical platforms such as increased connectivity, drones, etc. Current ground resources are compatible with these new satellites but must gradually be replaced, modernized, and completed in order to be able to fully exploit the new capacities of these satellites. This will allow the French forces to enhance communications capacities in terms of speed, availability, and resistance to threats, in particular for the equipment that will be delivered during the 2019–2025 Military Programme Law as part of the Scorpion programs; Rafale F4, Defense and Intervention Frigate and Force Supply Building (DGA 2019b).

In support of the Syracuse IV program, Telemak was funded through the Programme 191 Dual Research. Telemak activities consist of improving the performance of Ka-band covers while developing protection against interference and aggression, and to secure ongoing technological developments on the charges useful with a transparent digital processor (French Republic 2018a). Also, FAST is a dual-use project aimed at removing technological risks of the next-generation commercial telecommunication satellites and Syracuse IV, including the development of new generation chips common to civil space and defense programs as well as the development of a positioning, navigation, and timing 3G transparent digital processor (French Republic 2018a).

Overall, the French approach regarding national and multinational SATCOM capabilities development is based on a vision of different layers contributing to the overall capability. The sovereign core is composed of Military Satellite Communications Systems (MILSATCOM) with hardened capacity and military use only (Syracuse and SICRAL). The extended core is composed of governmental SATCOM with assured access and use by military and public authorities (Athena-Fidus and GOVSATCOM). The augmented core complements the picture by adding Commercial Satellite Communications (COMSATCOM) with access upon availability and use by military, public authorities, and civil private customers (EU SATCOM market). France has a long-term position to keep MILSATCOM out of Governmental Satellite Communications (GOVSATCOM) in line with this layered approach. The GOVSATCOM program should give added value to the European Defence Technological and Industrial Base (DGA 2015).

Positioning, Navigation, and Timing

The Ministry of the Armed Forces has access to the civil and military signals of the American Global Positioning System (GPS) system through military receivers developed in France under US license or acquired via Foreign Military Sales (FMS). GPS is evolving, with the introduction of GPS III satellites and the modernization of the ground segment. These changes will require a renewal of the receivers so that they are compatible with the new military signal “Code M,” which will be operational by 2020. OMEGA operation aims to equip the armed forces with jam-resistant receivers and access to several constellations, typically GPS and Galileo (PRS). The realization of the receivers and their integration will be in its majority done after 2019 (French National Assembly 2016).

In the frame of its multiannual program for Research and Technology CNES is looking to prepare the next-generation orbital infrastructures for navigation systems, location, and data collection, improving the performance of technologies, measurement, and systems until 2030/2040, and to prepare, for the short term, technologies and good use of the downstream sector of current generation systems. In 2018, CNES supported time-frequency research aimed at atomic clocks, oscillators and advanced timing and frequency transfer techniques, and performance increase of civil and defense services based on current and future systems, including technologies and relevant signal processing for the user segment. The 2018 call for ideas aimed to meet the future challenges of autonomous vehicles such as drones, transport, agriculture, and miniaturization which requires increase of accuracy, robustness, and integrity of positioning measurements. CNES is preparing for the evolutions in space infrastructure including GPS system, the deployment of Galileo, multi-constellation mode operations (Galileo, GPS, BEIDOU, GLONASS), as well as the use of satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) services such as European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) and the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) (CNES 2018).

Space Situational Awareness (SSA)

The French dual-use operational Space Situational Awareness (SSA) activities are organized on three levels. At the programmatic and decision-making level, CNES and the French Ministry of the Armed Forces closely cooperate to define policy, capabilities, and priorities. At the sensors level, the Ministry of the Armed Forces operates the GRAVES (Grand Réseau Adapté à la Veille Spatiale) survey radar and several tracking radars that CNES uses on a regular basis. CNES together with the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) also operates three TAROT telescopes located at Calern, in Chili, and in La Réunion for survey and tracking purposes. At the operational level, there are two operations centers in France. On the one hand, the military COSMOS Ops Centre of the French Air Force is responsible for Air and Space Defence and reports to the Office of the Prime Minister, as provided for by the French Code of Defence. On the other hand, the CNES Ops Centre consists of a 24/7 on-call team of ten specialists dedicated to conjunction assessment, alerts, and recommendations of collision avoidance maneuvers to spacecraft operators and owners (UNCOPUOS 2017).

After approaches and inspections of French satellites by foreign governments, Air Force Gen. Jean- Pascal Breton of the French Joint Space Command stated in January 2018 that the capability to detect and identify the suspect of an unfriendly or aggressive act an “essential condition for protection.” The capability to track exo-atmospheric space activity will be gradually “strengthened to allow identification and classification of objects in orbits that are of interest to France,” he added. France first introduced a space surveillance asset called Stradivarius located in Celar, in Brittany. France was obliged to dismantle its space surveillance asset recognizing the “space-dominant” role of the USA in NATO (Defence News 2018b).

The current GRAVES system is operated by the French Air Force. It is the space component of France’s SCCOA (Système de Commandement et de Conduite des Opérations Aérospatiales, System for Command and Control of aerospace operations) (French National Assembly 2016). GRAVES was developed by ONERA (Office National d’Etudes et de Recherches Aérospatiale, French national aerospace research center), which was delegated by DGA. It took 15 years for the installation to become operational in November to December 2005. GRAVES is composed of a bi-static radar installation – emission site near Dijon and reception site near Albion – and exploitation server located at the Air Force base of Lyon Mont Verdun. Operations are performed by COSMOS (Centre Opérationnel de Surveillance Militaire des Objets Spatiaux) (ONERA 2016).

The GRAVES functionality ranges from modelling the passage of foreign observation or listening satellites to the detection of new objects such as spy satellites. GRAVES had detected the orbital presence of “anomalies,” in other words satellite browser spies, especially US ones. Expanded surveillance French space allowed by GRAVES led to a strategic deal with the US, with both partners keeping the information on each military asset in space classified. Information on France’s military satellites is therefore no longer available on open US sources. At the national level, the strategic benefit of the investment represented by GRAVES in terms of spatial surveillance is perceived as very high, even more considering the relatively minor cost of the system at €30 million. In this regard, GRAVES aims to strengthen the status of France as a strategic partner of the US (French National Assembly 2016).

To continue to give France leverage in terms of influence and to keep a central place in the future European Space Surveillance and Tracking (SST) architecture, improvements to GRAVES are required in addition to sharing the capabilities with partners. A 2012 report submitted to the French Senate identified the following actions to be taken: GRAVES obsolescence treatment activities, installation of additional sensors, and inching identification capabilities through optical imagery. Identification is currently achieved through the assistance of the German Tracking and Imaging Radar (TIRA). France and Germany have concluded an agreement for sharing GRAVES and TIRA data. France is considering how it can achieve this capability at national level without dependency on partner assets and capabilities (French National Assembly 2016). At the end of 2016, a maintenance in operational condition – renovation – contract was concluded between DGA and ONERA/Degreane Horizon (Groupe Vinci Energies) for the maintenance activities allowing the GRAVES infrastructure to remain operational until 2030 for €40 million. The contract was awarded for 5 years with a further option for 3 years of operations. Apart from that initial modernization, ONERA is studying options for future upgrades which would allow the system to detect mini satellites weighing less than 500 kg and micro-satellites weighing less than 150 kg (ONERA 2016). The European Union Space Surveillance and Tracking (SST) Support Framework contributes to these activities. In the current condition, GRAVES does not detect all sizes of satellites. The ongoing renovations will enhance capabilities, but detection of nanosatellites is expected to be achieved only by 2025 (ONERA 2016).

Commissioned in 1992, Monge A601 is a missile-range instrumentation vessel, flagship of the Trials Squadron, and belongs to the DGA. The vessel has DRBV 15C air search and two navigation radars; its mission equipment includes the Stratus Gascogne, Armor (two), Savoie and Antares (two) missile tracking radars, a laser radar, an optronic tracking unit, and 14 telemetry antennae (FRS 2015). Monge could be partially used for SST functions like acquisition of orbital parameters in LEO. Monge can monitor missile launches including the Ariane rocket family. The Monge SATCOM system was made compatible with Syracuse III in 2015 after a major refit (FRS 2015).

SATAM is composed of four radars belonging to the French Air Force and is used for air defense purposes. SATAM may perform additional tracking in low Earth orbit. The tasks are implemented by the Air Force Command based on requests by COSMOS (FRS 2015). The radars are used for monitoring debris for management of collision risk determination and atmospheric reentry analysis. OSCEGEANE (Observation Spectrale et Caraterisation des Satellites Geostationnaire) is an experimental project to determine spectral signature of GEO objects. Operations are undertaken by COSMOS (French Joint Space Command 2016).

The LPM 2019–2025 foresees a modernization of GRAVES and SATAM, also using the opportunities presented by a future EU SST/SSA program (French Republic 2018b).

Electronic Intelligence (ELINT)

Since 1995 France has been placing experimental ELINT payloads and satellites in orbit. The objective is to eventually have satellites that allow France to figure out the location of and, where possible, identify individual transmitters and radars. This information would help French forces avoid detection in any military conflict, but initially the objective has been to understand how much information can be obtained to justify the funding of a future operational system (Schrogl et al. 2015).

France operates ELISA, an experimental electronic intelligence satellite, due to be replaced with the operational CERES system in 2020. ELISA (Electronic Intelligence Satellites) is a demonstration project, composed of four small satellites that were launched in December 2011, for spotting radar and other transmitter positions. The project is run and operated by DGA and CNES, who tasked EADS Astrium as a prime contractor with developing the space segment. ELISA could lead to an operational program of space-based electronic intelligence. Like Essaim, the ELISA satellites used the Myriade platform with a mass of roughly 130 kg each (Schrogl et al. 2015). Essaim (French for “swarm”) was a family of four small satellites for electronic intelligence. They were commissioned by DGA, and they were launched on 18 December 2004 (together with, among others, Helios-2A) from Kourou. The Essaim constellation deorbited in 2010 (Schrogl et al. 2015).

The CERES (Capacité de Renseignement Électromagnétique Spatiale) military electronic intelligence mission will use three formation-flying satellites detecting and locating radio communications and radars (Bird & Bird 2016). Preparatory phases of the project started in June 2007. DGA signed a contract with Airbus Defence and Space in December 2015 for the three satellites in low Earth orbit with an estimated program cost of €400 million. The objective of CERES is to provide the ability to intercept and locate electromagnetic emissions – radio communication and radar – from space. The CERES system forms part of the national joint force intelligence chain by contributing to permanent monitoring, surveillance, and support for operations. The CERES program aims at obtaining an operational listening capacity allowing the interception and localization of electromagnetic emissions from space (French Senate 2018). CERES will be using ISIS. The ISIS project (initiative for space innovative standards) is the production of an interoperability repository based on a line of ground segment products for generic control of next-generation satellites (French Republic 2018a).

According to the LPM 2019–2025, early warning contributes to surveillance of proliferation and ballistic activity; the identification of potential aggressors, with a view to the implementation of deterrence or conventional counterforce actions; alert populations based on the estimated areas targeted; and meet NATO commitments. NATO planned in November 2010 to establish a full anti-missile defense capability, the NATO Integrated Air and Missile Defence System. France aims to contribute to this system by 2020–2021. System architecture studies conducted in 2011–2012 confirmed the interest in developing two types of complementary sensors: space-based optical sensors with infrared detectors and very long-range UHF radars installed on land or at sea (French Senate 2018).

The first ability was tested by the SPIRALE program. SPIRALE was a French space-borne early warning capacity demonstrator (Systeme Preparatoire Infra-Rouge pour l’Alerte) consisting of two satellites launched in 2009 and remaining in orbit until 2011 (French Ministry of the Armed Forces 2012). Between 2002 and 2011, for a total cost €137 million, an Earth database essential to understanding natural and physical phenomena likely to generate false alarms was created. For budgetary reasons, the continuation of the program has been postponed beyond military programming for 2014–2019.

Regarding the radar component of the system, a demonstrator of a very long-range radar was ordered in 2011 and completed in 2016. The radar is currently in testing and validation phase. The originally envisaged timetable, which provided for a delivery of an early warning system in 2021, was considered unrealistic given the resources provided for in the LPM 2014–2019. However, the 2017 Strategic Defence Review and National Security Council expressly confirm the interest of the project. The acquisition of an early warning system is open to cooperation. In this respect, it should be noted that France, Italy, and Turkey signed a letter of intent in November 2017 to strengthen their cooperation in the field of armaments, including missile defense (French Senate 2018).

In the frame of NATO, France contributes to the ALTBMD Program (Active Layered Theatre Ballistic Missile Defence). Missile launch detection, tracking, and warning activities are implemented through cooperation with the US and the Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS). Regarding anti-missile capabilities, France has a ground-air system called SAMP/T, the ballistic anti-missile capability of which has been demonstrated in 2011. In addition to the 10 ground-based road mobile SAMP/T batteries, France holds the Principal Anti Air Missile System (PAAMS), the S1850M Radar, and the European Multifunction Phased Array Radar (EMPAR), all implemented on two Horizon-class frigates, and 12 ground-based road mobile Crotale Next Generation short-range air defense batteries (French Ministry of the Armed Forces 2012).

Fibally, ONERA is conducting a technology demonstrator, dubbed DRTLP, for an over-the-horizon radar to detect and track ballistic missile launches. ONERA took delivery in 2017 of the demonstrator built on a reduced scale of one-eighth for a very long-range radar, and tests have begun in 2018. The demonstrator studies a capability to detect and track a missile launch and forecast the point of impact and studies detection and tracking of satellites. ONERA aims to optimize the technology with upstream research allowing the DGA to decide how to pursue the project. (Defence News 2018c).

Germany

Space and Security Budget

Germany’s estimated defense expenditure was €42.12 billion or 1.38% of GDP in 2018, below the NATO guideline of 2% of GDP. 16.6% of the 2018 estimated budget was allocated to equipment expenditure. To reach NATO’s 2% of GDP target by 2024, defense expenditures would have to more than double within 7 years (NATO 2019). German government space expenditure was estimated at €1.9 billion in 2018 including €1.74 billion for civil activities and €166 million for defense (Euroconsult 2019). The 2018 budget increased by 1% compared to 2017. The breakdown of civil space expenditures between the national and ESA programs has remained constant since the beginning of the decade, with national programs receiving between 43% and 45% of the budget and the rest going to ESA. In 2018, Germany was the second largest contributor to ESA, almost on par with France. The German contribution grew 7% in 2018, reaching €920million. Defense space expenditure is not publicly released (Euroconsult 2019).

Space and Security Activities and Programs

Earth Observation (EO): Intelligence Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)

In November 2017, OHB System AG was awarded a contract for the development of a global electro-optical satellite system, nicknamed “Georg. This was intended for reconnaissance and consisted of two satellites to be placed under the authority of the German Secret Service (BND). The rationale for the system was to guarantee assured access and direct access to electro-optical imagery for German intelligence. The contract amounted to €400 million and the satellite is expected to be launched in 2022 with full operational capacity in 2022–2023 (La Tribune 2017). The budget was approved in June 2017. When the German government signed the contract with OHB, some French observers criticised Berlin of walking back on Franco-German agreements – with France focusing on electro-optical sensors and Germany on radar and partners exchanging data – adding that Germany had yielded to influence from its national space industry and refusing French industrial expertise (International Institute for Strategic Studies 2017).

SAR-Lupe is Germany’s first satellite-based reconnaissance system. SAR-Lupe is a SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) reconnaissance satellite imaging project of the German government, implemented by the German Ministry of Defense (BMVg) and the former Federal Office of Defence Technology and Procurement (BWB). The SAR-Lupe program consists of five identical (770 kg) satellites, launched between December 2006 and July 2008 and developed by OHB System AG as prime contractor. The satellites are controlled by a ground station operated by the Bundeswehr Geoinformation Centre (BGIC) under the Strategic Reconnaissance Command (KSA). Within the KSA, the Zentrale Abbildende Aufklärung (ZentrAbbAufkl) operates the user segment for SAR-Lupe. Delivery of the overall system was officially accepted by the Federal Office of Equipment, Information Technology and Utilization (BAAINBw), in September 2008. A bilateral agreement (Schwerin Agreement) with the French government was signed in 2002 for data from SAR-Lupe to be provided in exchange for data from Helios (OHB Website). The SAR-Lupe original program cost was €350 million (Satellite Observation 2016). Operating in X-band, the radar satellites have two modes. The first mode “stripmap,” in which the satellite maintains a fixed orientation regarding Earth, provides extended time imaging with a fixed direction of the antenna. The second one “spotlight,” in which the satellite or the sensor direction rotates to keep pointing at a specific target area, is used for high-resolution imagery. The actual resolution values of SAR-Lupe are classified. The only official statement is that the spatial resolution is much better than 1 m (Schrogl et al. 2015). Germany’s development of this program was directly related to its experiences during the NATO action in Kosovo, particularly to difficulties in getting the US to share satellite intelligence of direct relevance to the protection and security of non-US allied forces. These experiences convinced Germany of the need for its own space-based intelligence-gathering assets (European Parliament 2006).

In July 2013, OHB System AG signed a contract with the Federal Office of Equipment, Information Technology and Utilization (BAAINBw), within the German Armed Forces, to develop the SARah (Satellite-based Radar Reconnaissance) system consisting of three second-generation satellites aimed to replace the SAR-Lupe constellation. OHB agreed to build two passive-antenna Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellites at 500 km non-SSO orbits, and Astrium GmbH would build a larger, phased-array-antenna satellite at 750 km SSO dawn-dusk orbit under contract for OHB (SpaceX 2013). In 2019 BAAINBw signed an additional contract with OHB adjusting the initial requirements to implement the SARah system in response to threats in the area of IT security and satellite communications (Bloomberg 2019). The system with one ground station is planned to be delivered and to become operational in 2020 after launch on SpaceX Falcon 9. The ground segment for SARah is already operating the SAR-Lupe satellites as of February 2018. Germany is in the process of preparing the SARah next-generation system with decisions to be taken before the end of 2020 to ensure seamless transition between systems (EO Portal Website).

Germany had considered in the past establishing HIROS (High-Resolution Optical System) in close collaboration with the US. HIROS was to be a triplet optical satellite expected to be built by OHB System AG. After funding issues at the German Secret Service (BND) side, efforts were dropped (Satellite Observation 2016). The German Ministry of Defense, instead, decided to invest €210 million in the French CSO system (Composante Spatiale Optique) in 2015, the follow-up project of Helios-2 (La Tribune 2017).

TerraSAR-X/TanDEM-X is a high-resolution interferometric SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) mission of the German Aerospace Center, DLR, together with the partners EADS Astrium GmbH and Infoterra GmbH in a Public Private Partnership consortium (Schrogl et al. 2015). The mission concept is based on a second TerraSAR-X radar satellite flying in close formation to achieve the desired interferometric baselines in a highly reconfigurable constellation (Schrogl et al. 2015). The elevation model yields important information to military planners preparing for tasks such as special forces operations, target designation for bombings, and surveillance missions. Following an announcement from DLR in October 2016, the TanDEM-X global elevation model was completed, exceeding the 10-meter accuracy. Between January 2010 and December 2015, the two radar satellites transmitted more than 500 terabytes of data to Earth via the worldwide reception network. In parallel, systematic creation of elevation models began in 2014. TerraSAR-X and TanDEM-X have long exceeded their specified service lives and continue operating (DLR 2016). Airbus Defence and Space holds the commercial marketing rights for TanDEM-X data, worth €359 million for the data licenses, processing software, and running costs. The US had urged Germany to grant access to the TanDEM-X global elevation model (Spiegel 2015). Airbus Defence and Space and the German Ministry of Defense subsequently signed a contract for the utilization of TanDEM-X mission data. On 14 December 2015, the US National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency and the German Bundeswehr Geoinformation Centre signed an agreement to strengthen worldwide geospatial data-sharing partnerships and increase the accuracy and quality of NGA products and services (NGA 2015).

Building on the success of TanDEM-X, Tandem-L is a DLR proposal for a highly innovative radar satellite mission to monitor dynamic processes on the Earth’s surface with hitherto unknown quality and resolution. Important mission goals include the global measurement of forest biomass, the systematic monitoring of deformations of the Earth’s surface, the quantification of glacier motion and melting processes in the polar regions, and observations of the dynamics of ocean surfaces and ice drift. The implementation of Tandem-L means a worldwide unique remote sensing system exceeding the performance of existing systems. According to current planning, the Tandem-L satellites could be launched in 2023 (DLR Tandem-L). In addition, the TerraSAR-X NG is intended to succeed the current TanDEM-X and TerraSAR-X. The TerraSAR-X NG mission is intended to take the data and service continuity well beyond 2025 taking benefit of a 9.5 years satellite lifetime. The space segment, initially a single spacecraft, will be launched into the reference orbit, while the first-generation systems will still be operational. This is a project of Airbus Defence and Space Geo-Intelligence/Infoterra GmbH, Friedrichshafen, Germany (EO Portal Website).

EnMAP (Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program) is a hyperspectral satellite mission that aims at monitoring and characterizing the Earth’s environment on a global scale. EnMAP serves to measure and model key dynamic processes of the Earth’s ecosystems by extracting geochemical, biochemical, and biophysical parameters, which provide information on the status and evolution of various terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The EnMAP long-term program is based on a cooperative approach involving various German institutions including DLR and the German Research Center for Geosciences. In November 2006, DLR awarded a design contract to Kayser-Threde GmbH (OHB owned) as prime contractor of EnMAP. In 2008, a contract for the realization phase was signed for a total contract value of €90 million. Launch is expected for 2021 (OHB 2008).

The RapidEye mission was a commercial remote sensing mission by the German Company RapidEye AG. It was supported by German Aerospace Center (DLR) with funds from the Ministry of Economics and the Brandenburg state government. The total sum invested in the project amounted to around €160 million, of which about 10% is funded by DLR. The RapidEye’s complete constellation of five satellites was successfully launched on a single DNEPR-1 rocket (a refurbished ICBM missile) on 29 August 2008 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan and became commercially operational in February 2009. In November 2013 RapidEye officially changed its name to BlackBridge (Schrogl et al. 2015). The RapidEye constellation was acquired by Planet Labs, a US private company, in 2015.

The DLR FireBIRD (Fire Bispectral InfraRed Detector) mission consists of a pair of satellites – TET-1 (Technology Experiment Carrier) and BIROS (Bispectral Infrared Optical System) – that detect high-temperature events from space. Both satellites are based on the small satellite BIRD – operational from 2001 to 2004 – which was developed by the DLR Institute of Optical Sensor Systems. TET-1 has been orbiting Earth since 2012. BIROS has also been in orbit since 2016, adopting an open constellation to support TET-1. The satellite data is mainly received at the DLR ground station in Neustrelitz and then processed, archived, and made available worldwide for scientific purposes by the German Remote Sensing Data Center. FireBIRD has the capability to detect smaller fires. This enables more precise mapping and therefore analysis of their impact on the climate (DLR 2017a).

The German Remote Sensing Data Center (DFD) is an institute of DLR. DFD and DLR’s Remote Sensing Technology Institute (IMF) together comprise the Earth Observation Centre (EOC). With its national and international receiving stations, DFD offers direct access to data from Earth observation missions, derives information products from the raw data, disseminates these products to users, and safeguards all data in the National Remote Sensing Data Library for long-term use. The DFD Ground Station Network consists of stations located in Germany, Canada, and Antarctica (DLR 2018). DLR signed a bilateral cooperation agreement with the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS) for receiving satellite data in Canada. The CCRS makes land available in the context of this contract. The commercial partner, PrioraNet Canada (PNC) – a joint venture between the Canadian company Iunctus Geomatics and the Swedish Space Corporation – has been responsible for the maintenance and development of the site. The Antarctica station has been important in the frame of data reception for the TanDEM-X mission (DLR 2018).

The Fraunhofer Institute is developing a nanosatellite ERNST (experimental spacecraft based on nanosatellite technology) to reduce development costs and time to orbit. When carried into orbit in 2021, ERNST will be equipped with an infrared camera for Earth observation. ERNST will be put in a 700 km SSO orbit. The main purpose of the ERNST is to evaluate the utility of a 12 U nanosatellite mission for scientific and military purposes (Fraunhofer 2018).

In the field of HAPS (high-altitude platform station) , a start-up company called Alphalink, in cooperation with the Technical University of Berlin, is developing a high-altitude platform for delivering Internet connection to remote locations. Interest in the applications has been shown by disaster management institutions, the Federal Office of Disaster Management and Civil Protection in Germany, as well as the International Disaster Management Association (Space News 2017a).

Satellite Communications (SATCOM)

Germany currently holds two communication satellites, COMSAT 1 and COMSAT 2, and ground stations (SATCOMBw system). SATCOMBw system is the first owned, dedicated communications system of the German Armed Forces. DLR’s German Space Operations Centre (GSOC) is responsible for monitoring and controlling the spacecraft. The satellites were launched in October 2009 and May 2010 to geostationary orbit with an orbital lifetime foreseen of 15 years (Air Force Website). The German Armed Forces awarded a contract to a team led by MilSat Services in July 2006, to carry out SATCOMBw stage 2 military communications program for 10 years. The contractual scope included in-orbit delivery and operation of two communications satellites, development of anchor station and ground user terminal segment, as well as modernization of the central command, control, and network management centers. Germany had also awarded a subcontract to Thales Alenia Space to design, build, integrate, test, and deliver COMSATBw-1 and COMSATBw-2 satellites. Tesat, a subsidiary of Airbus Defence and Space, supplied the payloads (Air Force Website).

In March 2016, Airbus Defence and Space GmbH was awarded a contract from the German Armed Forces procurement agency – BAAINBw for continued operations of the SATCOMBw satellite communications system until 2022 (Shephard 2016). Germany is currently defining requirements for the future systems replacing the existing SATCOMBw stage 2 capacities. COMSAT 1 and COMSAT 2 will reach their end of life by 2027. To fill this potential gap, prospective solutions are investigated including acquisition and in-service aspects also in the frame of future EU and NATO programs (IAI 2018).

DLR signed in July 2017 a contract with OHB Systems for an experimental telecommunications satellite, Heinrich Hertz, that will be used partly by the Federal Armed Forces. The launch of the satellite is expected in 2021. The mission aims to explore and test new communications technologies in space at a technical and scientific level. Heinrich Hertz will carry approximately 20 technology experiments as well as a fully functioning Ku- and Ka-band military communications payload. Heinrich Hertz will use the SmallGEO satellite platform designed under the European Space Agency’s ARTES program. DLR is responsible for Heinrich Hertz’s project planning and implementation, while the Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy is financing the program (OHB Website).

Furthermore, within the project OSIRIS, optical communication systems are optimized especially for small satellites that are developed. To enable robust communication links, DLR also deals with the development and implementation of forward error correction algorithms which are optimized for free-space optical communication links (DLR 2017b).

Germany has developed a satellite-based Modular Warning System (MoWaS), for defense and crisis situations, and has also made it available to the federal states as a central warning and information system (BBK 2017). In order to cope with crises, the federally owned satellite-supported warning system (SatWaS) was developed since 2001. The further development of SatWaS into the Modular Warning System (MoWaS) was completed in 2013. This is geographic information system (GIS)-based. Through a single transmission protocol, MoWaS can control all the devices and applications imaginable today (such as smoke detectors, mobile devices, apps). This includes already existing but also future warning channels. This is possible by using the Common Alerting Protocol as the open data format of the alerts (BBK 2017).

Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)

In September 2017, the German Ministry of Defense selected Rockwell Collins’ NavHub navigation system to provide GNSS availability to a variety of its military vehicles. The NavHub system serves as a next-generation GNSS- and military-code (M-code)-enabled solution for the German Armed Forces. Customizable for ground and maritime platforms, NavHub provides a variety of vehicle interfaces, meets the standards required by military vehicle operators, and allows users to receive data from multiple secure and open-service GNSS constellations to simultaneously confirm the navigational solution (Selective Availability/Anti-spoofing Module (SAASM) GPS receivers). Access to multi-constellation GNSS and GPS M-code provides a significantly enhanced navigational solution over the GPS-only solution (GPS World 2017). Since 2014, the German government has been sponsoring a special prize for Public Regulated Service (PRS) applications as part of the European Satellite Navigation Competition (ESNC), with the aim to perform joint testing activity with Belgium and other Member States and advance technology on further miniaturization and simplification of PRS receiver technology (GSA 2017).

The Institute of Communications and Navigation of DLR is involved in development of many advanced signal processing algorithms for GNSS applications with stringent requirements toward service performance and reliability. DLR’s Multi-output Advanced Signal Test Environment for Receivers (MASTER) is a unique and powerful hardware simulation tool for testing and quality assessment of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Receivers (DLR Website). In addition, the German Satellite Positioning Service (SAPOS) has set up and permanently operated a multifunctional differential GNSS service. The system is based on a network of approximately 270 GNSS reference stations which are operated by the Surveying Authorities of the States of the Federal Republic of Germany (AdV). This service is widely available with high reliability and comprises three service areas with different properties and accuracies (AdV Website).

Space Situational Awareness (SSA)

The Space Situational Awareness Centre (GSSAC), run jointly by the German air Force and DLR, operates the Tracking and Imaging Radar (TIRA) system, which is owned by the Fraunhofer Institute (French National Assembly 2016). TIRA is an adapted radar to track objects in low Earth orbit through characterization and localization. TIRA performs the “characterization and track” phase but needs input from other kinds of radar, like the French GRAVES, to survey the space zone and identify the object that needs to be observed and tracked (FRS 2015). France and Germany have an agreement for sharing GRAVES and TIRA data (French National Assembly 2016). TIRA’s typical tasks, apart from orbit determination and damage analysis, include the identification and technical analysis of satellites. This is possible due to its radar images which are characterized by high radiometric and spatial resolution. All phases of the space mission, extending from the launch and operational phases to the reentry phase, can be supported with the radar data from TIRA. TIRA has monitored the reentry of the Chinese Space Station Tiangong-1 in 2018 (Fraunhofer Institute 2018).

In 2016, Germany decided to expend its SSA center originally established in 2009, in the aftermath of the 2007 Chinese Fengyun-1C ASAT test. The Centre is run jointly by DLR and the German Air Force. The new German Experimental Space Surveillance and Tracking Radar, or GESTRA, became operational in 2019. The new space surveillance radar GESTRA (German Experimental Space Surveillance and Tracking Radar), which is currently being developed by Fraunhofer Institute for DLR, is equipped with an electronically steerable antenna that can scan large areas of the sky based on semiconductor technology. GESTRA is designed to operate continuously to create a catalogue of the debris in near-Earth space (Fraunhofer Institute 2018). GESTRA received its first signals reflected by objects in space on 27 November 2019 (DLR 2019).

Italy

Space and Security Budget

Italy’s defense expenditure was €21.18 billion or 1.22% of GDP in 2018, below the NATO guideline of 2% of GDP (NATO 2019). The Italian government expenditure for space-related activities amounted to €1 billion in 2018 of which €950 million covered civil activities and €50 million defense (Euroconsult 2019). ESA represented 61% of Italy’s civil space budget in 2018 at €578 million. Earth observation is the largest area of investment of the Italian space program representing 43% of the national civil expenditures in 2018, which is 24% of the civil budget. The budget for defense space programs is based on the procurement cycles of the national Earth observation and satellite communications systems. The defense space budget reached its lowest level across the decade at €50 million in 2018, following the launches of Athena-Fidus (2014), SICRAL 2/Syracuse IIIC (2015) and the optical satellite SHALOM (2017) (Euroconsult 2019).

Space and Security Activities and Programs

Earth Observation (EO): Intelligence Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)

COSMO-SkyMed is the first space-borne Earth observation system implementing a dual-use architecture for civilian and defense needs in both national and international contexts. The system has been commissioned and funded by the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and the Italian Ministry of Defence in 2003 with Thales Alenia Space Italy (TASI) as prime contractor. The system design and development has been led by TASI in collaboration with a large industrial team comprising many other small- and medium-sized Italian companies mainly belonging to the Finmeccanica Group. The dual nature of the system can be retrieved already in its mission objectives relaying mainly on the capability to provide information and services useful for many activities and applications for both civilian and defense users (Schrogl et al. 2015).

The COSMO-SkyMed system consists of a space segment composed by a constellation of four low Earth orbit midsized very high-resolution satellites, each carrying a multi-mode high-resolution Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) instrument. Both ground and space segments are conceived to support dual-use, the space segment thanks to an antenna granting a wide spread of resolutions and swaths, whereas the ground segment thanks to the duplication of its key elements and a series of rules and procedures granting a secure data circulation. The success achieved by this space-borne mission is testified by the interest that it has generated in other countries. As such, ASI operates as a procurement agency for the French defense administration. The COSMO-SkyMed French defense user ground segment is fully operative, and according to Italian and French government partnerships, a bilateral image-trading protocol has been established: COSMO-SkyMed SAR image products are exchanged with Helios-2 optical image products to support institutional defense applications (Schrogl et al. 2015). Thales Alenia Space and Arianespace signed in September 2017 a launch contract for two COSMO-SkyMed Second Generation (CSG) satellites manufactured for ASI and the Italian Ministry of Defence (Arianespace 2017a). The CSG COSMO-SkyMed constellation is a satellite system designed to ensure operational continuity of SAR observation services provided by the four first-generation COSMO-SkyMed satellites, launched between 2007 and 2010 (Telespazio 2019). Built by Thales Alenia Space, the CSG COSMO-SkyMed satellites will each weigh approximately 2.3 tons at launch and will be positioned in SSO dawn-dusk orbit at an altitude of 619 km (Defense Aerospace 2017). The first CSG COSMO-SkyMed (CSG-1) was launched from the Kourou European Space Centre in French Guyana on December 18, 2019.

In June 2017, OHB Italia and Arianespace announced the signature of a Vega launch contract in 2018 for PRISMA (Precursore iperspettrale della missione applicative). PRISMA is an Earth observation satellite fitted with an innovative electro-optical instrument, combining a hyperspectral sensor with a medium-resolution panchromatic camera (Arianespace 2017b). The PRISMA mission main objectives are the in-orbit demonstration and qualification of an Italian state-of-the-art hyperspectral imager, the implementation of a preoperative mission and the validation of the end-to-end data-processing chain for new applications based on high spectral resolution images. This allows to provide products for environmental observation and support to risk management. The PRISMA Space Segment consists of a single satellite placed on a Sun-synchronous low Earth orbit and an expected operational lifetime of 5 years. PRISMA is civilian system under civil control, but the Italian Ministry of Defence has demonstrated interest in its applications including agriculture, environment, climate change, and costal monitoring (Loizzo 2016).

OPTSAT-3000 consists of a satellite in a Sun-synchronous low Earth orbit and of a ground segment for in-orbit control and for data acquisition and processing. OPTSAT-3000 aims to provide high-resolution images of any part of the globe, providing Italy with an autonomous national capability of Earth observation from space with a high-resolution optical sensor. The system is supplied by Leonardo through its joint venture Telespazio. As prime contractor, Telespazio leads an international group of companies including, among others, Israel Aerospace Industries, which built the satellite within an international cooperation agreement between Italy and Israel as well as OHB Italia that is responsible for the launch and will make use of the VEGA European launcher. OPTSAT-3000 will jointly operate with the second-generation COSMO-SkyMed system of radar satellites – which has also been developed by Italian industry. Thales Alenia Space and Telespazio integrate optical and radar data to provide the Italian Ministry of Defence with accurate information and state-of-the-art analysis (Leonardo 2017). OPTSAT was launched with Vega from Kourou on 2 August 2017. The OPTSAT-3000 program was developed to provide an independent, national high-resolution optical space-based Earth observation capability, integrated with the first- and future second-generation COSMO-SkyMed SAR satellite constellation in support of the requirements of the Italian Ministry of Defence, as well as national agencies operating in the field of safety and security and international customers (Janes.com 2017).

The SHALOM (Spaceborne Hyperspectral Applicative Land and Ocean Mission) , which is in collaboration with the Israel Space Agency (ISA), may be considered as an upgraded OPTSAT-3000 satellite regarding hyperspectral imagery). SHALOM and OPTSAT-3000 give Italy key space intelligence capability, based on defense cooperation between Italy and Israel (Janes.com 2017). The mission objectives are to provide high-resolution (spectral, spatial, temporal) data of geochemical, geo-physical, and geo-biological variables; provide thematic digital maps of the above parameters such as environmental quality, crisis monitoring, search for mineral and natural resources, monitoring water bodies, and assisting precision agriculture activity; enable quantitative measurement of currently immeasurable (space) parameters that are required by a wide range of end users; and provide high-quality calibrated data as input for generating thematic maps and models for monitoring those parameters (Janes.com 2017). ASI and Israel Space Agency signed in 2015 an agreement for the development of the SHALOM mission (EARSC 2015).

Satellite Communications (SATCOM)

SICRAL (Sistema Italiano per Comunicazioni Riservate e Allarmi) is Italy’s first dedicated military telecommunications satellite and was the product of the industrial consortium comprising Alenia Spazio (70%), FiatAvio (20%), and Telespazio (10%) (European Parliament 2006). The program is divided into three phases. The first began in 2001 with the launch of the SICRAL 1, a satellite that is still in operation. The second phase began in 2009 with the launch of SICRAL 1B, which has an estimated operational life span of 13 years (Telespazio 2020a). The third phase, in cooperation with France (see above in the section of France), became operational after April 2015 with the launch of SICRAL 2, with an estimated operational life span of 15 years. SICRAL 2 is a geostationary satellite, able to enhance the capability of military satellite communications already offered by SICRAL 1 and SICRAL 1B and by France’s Syracuse System. SICRAL 2 supports satellite communications for the Italian and French Armed Forces, anticipating the needs of growth and development in the next few years. The satellite has an additional backup function to the current capacity of the French Syracuse III system and that of SICRAL 1B allocated to NATO communications (Telespazio 2020b).

Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)

The Italian Space Agency (ASI) Strategic Document 2016–2025 has a dedicated section on Galileo including a Galileo Public Regulated Service (PRS) national program, considered an area of strategic importance. For Italy, the real challenge and opportunity for the future come from the integration of downstream services of navigation with services of telecommunications and Earth observation. To take advantage of these opportunities, a national support program, the Mirror Galileo, is being studied and envisages the development of MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) platforms for navigation payloads, to facilitate the competitiveness of our national industry in the upstream sector, technological developments for Galileo components and subsystems, and also in a developmental perspective (ASI 2016).

The PRESAGO project, with the involvement of potential institutional domestic users, has defined the preliminary design of the baseline PRS, that is of the infrastructures, systems, and services necessary for supporting and making the use of the PRS efficient, both inside and outside of the national borders. The domestic program for the Galileo PRS infrastructure comprises national capability for manufacturing PRS receivers, including relative security modules, and the development of domestic activities. The latter consist of the development of the PRS security center, the interference monitoring system, the PRS terminals, the network and interfaces for domestic users, etc. The main benefits expected are the possibility for Italy to use its own infrastructure to support other European countries in using the PRS services; the access to the potential market relative to the implementation of PRS structures by other European countries; the development of value-added service solutions, based on the concept of PRS servers; and the development of value-added service solutions that integrate other satellite technology solutions (ASI 2016).

A private network of more than 150 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) permanent sites, named ItalPoS (Italian Positioning Service) and uniformly covering the entire Italian territory, was established in April 2006 by the Italian Division of Leica Geosystems S.p.A. This network also involves several GPS stations of the INGV (Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology) RING (real-time Integrated National GPS) network and GPS stations from other public and private bodies (Castagnetti et al. 2010).

Space Situational Awareness (SSA)

The ASI Strategic Vision document outlines the Italian plans for contributing to EU SST. ASI is expected to make available the sensors located at the SGC (Space Geodesy Centre). The role of SGC is that of Centre of Expertise for Civil Protection in monitoring the uncontrolled reentry of space debris. The Ministry of Defence will contribute, with optical telescopes and radar used for detection and tracking, together with the National Operations Centre. INAF (the National Institute for Astrophysics) will contribute with the Sardinia Radio Telescope and the “Northern Cross” Radio Telescope located in Bologna (ASI 2016).

The Matera Laser Ranging Observatory (MLRO) is owned by ASI and operated by e-GEOS. The observatory provides very precise laser ranging for satellites, suitable for satellite tracking applications. The observatory has not yet been tested for space debris tracking. The SPADE optical telescope at Matera is owned by ASI and operated by e-GEOS. The telescope contributed in a LEO and GEO space debris campaign supporting the work of the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) (Telespazio 2017). The Sardinia Radio Telescope (SRT) is the result of a scientific and technical collaboration among three Structures of the Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF): the Institute of Radio Astronomy of Bologna, the Cagliari Astronomy Observatory, and the Arcetri Astrophysical Observatory in Florence. Funding agencies are the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research, the Sardinia Regional Government, and ASI. The manufacturing of the SRT mechanical parts and their assembly on-site was commissioned in 2003 to the company MTM (Germany). The final tests and acceptance of the instrument were performed in August 2012 (Tofanie 2008).

Space debris monitoring is part of the Italian Institute for Astrophysics (INAF) and Cagliari Astronomical Observatory research activity in the framework convention ASI/INAF “Space Debris—IADC activities support and SST preoperative validation.” In this framework, the INAF participation concerns the testing of the SRT’s operative capacities in the detection of signals scattered by space debris. ASI, INAF, and the Ministry of Defence have signed a framework agreement for the SST program. The agreement – which runs from June 2015 until end 2020 – foresees a Steering Committee for Space Surveillance and Tracking Activities (OCIS), responsible for coordinating the national activities in the European SST initiative and directing ASI as national entity representing Italy within the European SST Consortium (Telespazio 2017).

In January 2015, thanks to the cooperation with the Air Force’s IV Brigade, Telecommunication and Systems for Air Defence and Flight Assistance, a test was carried out in which the Selex ES (now Leonardo) RAT-31/DL FADR (Fixed Air Defence Radar) played the leading role. The system has become the backbone for the air surveillance of NATO countries, over the years. The test that successfully recorded the trajectory of several small satellites showed the advantages of using radar in the search of space debris. In comparison to the benefits of optical telescopes, the radar has significant advantages. The testing campaign has given results that confirm the great potential of the FADR in this field, even opening the possibility of exploiting other Air Defence radar system networks across Europe (including numerous RAT-31/DLs installed in Austria, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Germany, and other countries) to provide satellite monitoring and surveillance services (Leonardo 2015).

Spain

Space and Security Budget

Spain had an estimated defense expenditure of €11.172 billion or 0.92% of GDP in 2018, below the NATO guideline of 2% of GDP. 19.3% of the 2018 estimated budget was allocated to equipment expenditure (NATO 2019). Spain has committed itself to “regularly increase” defense budgets to achieve the agreed objectives. In this sense, the government aims to increase its defense investment spending in the medium term “successively” so that it reaches 20% of the total expenditure on this matter and will increase the expenses dedicated to defense research and technology for approximate them to 2% of the total expenditure (The Diplomat 2017). Spain’s total space budget was estimated €354 million in 2018, including €293 million for civil activities and €61 million for defense. The budget driven by the contribution to ESA started to recover in 2016 after experiencing a decrease in 2013 followed by a 3-year stagnation. The 2018 budget grew by 18% compared to 2017 (Euroconsult 2019).

Space and Security Activities and Programs

Earth Observation (EO): Intelligence Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)

Spain has developed its own dedicated EO system. The Spanish PNOTS (National Earth Observation Programme) is a complete system, based on SEOSat/Ingenio and PAZ (Schrogl et al. 2015). The development of both satellites was established under the Space Strategic Plan 2007–2011 on flagship missions (CDTI 2008). With PNOTS Spain acquired a fully independent operational satellite remote sensing capability (Schrogl et al. 2015). PNOTS is funded and owned by the government of Spain. The project development of SEOSat/Ingenio is overseen by the European Space Agency (ESA) as a national contribution within the framework of Europe under a procurement assistance agreement signed between ESA and the Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology (CDTI) in 2007 (Space News 2018a). The National Institute of Aerospace Technology, INTA, is managing the ground segment of the two missions. The ground segment is being developed by an industrial consortium including Deimos, GMV, and Isdefe. The System will be operated from the ground station of Torrejon de Ardoz (Spain), which will be the primary control center of the mission and using Maspalomas (Canary Islands) as backup station. The dual-use nature of the PAZ mission implies security constraints within its ground segment (SPIE 2017).

HISDESAT, together with INTA, is responsible for in-orbit operations and commercial operations of both satellites. Airbus Defence and Space Spain (formerly EADS CASA Espacio) is the prime contractor leading the industrial consortia of both missions. A major objective of PNOTS is to maximize the common developments and services and to share the infrastructure between both missions (whenever possible). Both missions will also contribute to the European Copernicus program. According to the contract, the ESA SEOSat/Ingenio project team must ensure that the European ground segment will allow the SEOSat/Ingenio system to become a candidate national mission contributing to Copernicus and to participate to the ESA third-party mission scheme within the EO multi-mission environment and therefore to support HMA (Heterogeneous Mission Access) services. SEOSat/Ingenio is the first Spanish Earth observation satellite financed by the Ministry of Economic Affairs, Industry and Competitiveness (formerly the Spanish Ministry of Industry) and built by a consortium of industries of the Spanish space sector with Astrium España (now Airbus Defence and Space Spain) as the prime contractor (with SENER, TASE, INDRA, GMV, and INTA) (Schrogl et al. 2015).

Ingenio is a satellite system with a foreseen 7-year operational lifetime in Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) at 670 km. The payload consists of a multispectral imager (MS), a panchromatic imager (PAN), and an Ultraviolet and Visible Atmospheric Sounder (UVAS). SENER is responsible for the design, manufacturing, integration, alignment, and verification of the primary payload of the mission. The launch is scheduled for the first half of 2020 onboard a Vega launcher from Kourou (ESA 2014; SpaceWatch global 2019). PAZ will be one of the first satellites to combine Earth observation data with a sophisticated Automatic Identification System (AIS), which will allow to make the best possible monitoring of the world maritime environment. The expected operational lifetime is 5 and a half years. PAZ was launched in February 2018 by SpaceX from Vandenberg military base (SpaceX 2018).

HISDESAT is responsible for the launch and commercial operations of both satellites of the observation system in cooperation with the INTA, which is to provide ground control. Both satellites allow for Earth observation for multiple purposes: border control, intelligence, environmental monitoring, protection of natural resources, military operations, enforcement of international treaties, surface monitoring, city and infrastructure planning, monitoring of natural catastrophes, and high-resolution mapping, among many other (IDS 2014). The main center of the ground segment, located in the INTA, is completely installed with the integrated systems and in phase of interoperability tests. Spain’s participation in the Pléiades program has allowed the national industry to reach industrial capabilities through the development of the ground segment for the Spanish Ministry of Defence (Spanish Ministry of Defence 2015a).

In the medium term, the amount, type, and cost of the PAZ satellite images necessary to cover the needs of the Ministry of Defence are expected to be assessed. In relation to the observation capacity, optics should analyze the options available once the operational life of Helios is over. High-resolution optical images could be obtained through the kickoff of a program with industry participation without ruling out a possible cooperation of Spain in the optical component (CSO) of the MUSIS as a substitute for Helios. There are possibilities for a reorientation of employment of the facilities of the ground segment of the Pléiades, for a future national program or within the framework of the MUSIS program (Spanish Ministry of Defence 2015a).

Satellite Communications (SATCOM)

HISPASAT was incorporated in 1989 to design, develop, manage, and deliver a commercial network capability as fleet operator in Ku band and Governmental services in X-band Satellite Communications System (SATCOM) for the Spanish government (Spanish Ministry of Defence 2015b). HISPASAT is owned by Abertis, a Spanish toll road company; SEPI, an industrial holding company; and Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology (CDTI) (Space News 2018b).

HISDESAT was incorporated in 2001 to define, develop, and operate new governmental SATCOM (Spanish Ministry of Defence 2015b). HISDESAT has been providing secure satellite communications services to the Spanish Ministry of Defence in support of all international missions of the Armed Forces, among others. It has also extended these services to other governments. HISDESAT services now include Earth observation, satellite communications, and AIS services through exactEarth (HISDESAT 2016). HISDESAT customers include the Spanish Ministry of Defence, Spanish Ministry of the Interior (CNI), Spanish Ministry of Economic Affairs, Industry and Competitiveness, the Spanish Regional Authorities, the Danish Ministry of Defence, Belgian Ministry of Defence, Norwegian Ministry of Defence, and US defense and intelligence agencies. HISDESAT operates SPAINSAT, Xtar-Eur, Paz and Ingenio (CDTI 2011; HISDESAT 2016). In 2007 an agreement was signed between the Ministries of Defence and Foreign Affairs to develop secure communications for the government’s foreign activities. The project is based on two central hubs located at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, with the entire network being connected through the geostationary satellites SPAINSAT and Xtar-Eur (IDS 2014). HISDESAT-operated secure communications services are provided by Ministry of the Interior to control borders between Spain, Portugal, and different African countries through the “Seahorse” program, strengthening security and illegal immigration control operations (IDS 2014).

The capacity of military satellite communications is covered by the service offered by the satellites SPAINSAT , as the main satellite, and Xtar-Eur as a redundant satellite. This set of satellites has a nominal life of 15 years, so, with its entry into operation in 2005 and 2006, the operational requirements of the Ministry of Defence are met until the year 2021. To meet this need, the Ministry of Defence and the companies HISDESAT and HISPASAT signed a framework agreement for the implementation of a satellite military communications system on 31 July 2001 Spanish Ministry of Defence (2015a). In May 2019, HISDESAT appointed Thales Alenia Space and Airbus to build two SPAINSAT Next Generation (NG) satellites for governmental communications that will replace the existing SPAINSAT and Xtar-Eur satellites. They will be launched in 2023, with an operational lifetime 15 years, aiming to guarantee the continuity of the secure communications services to the Spanish Ministry of Defence and Governmental Agencies using the current fleet (Space News 2019).

Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)

Permanent GNSS network and associated services are organized at the level of autonomous communities/regions. HISDESAT holds a stake of 27% in exactEarth (HISDESAT 2016). Based in Canada, exactEarth is a leading organization in the field of global automatic identification system (AIS) vessel tracking, collecting the most comprehensive ship monitoring data and delivering the highest quality information to customers.

Space Situational Awareness (SSA)

The Spanish Space Surveillance and Tracking (S3T) system provides services with two main objectives: to ensure the long-term availability of space infrastructures which are essential for the safety and security of worldwide citizens and to provide the best available information to governmental and civil protection services in the event of uncontrolled reentries of entire spacecraft or space debris thereof into the Earth’s atmosphere. The SST services comprise collision risk assessment; the generation of conjunction data messages between objects in space; the detection and characterization of in-orbit fragmentations and collisions; and characterization and surveillance of uncontrolled reentries of space objects into the Earth’s atmosphere (CDTI 2017).

The S3T system is currently contributing to the provision of these services by means of a national SST Operations Centre (S3TOC) and a set of ground-based sensors (S3TSN) which include optical surveillance and tracking telescopes and a surveillance radar. From a functional point of view, the S3TOC consists of a data-processing function, a sensor planning and tasking function, and a service provision function. The data-processing function is devoted to sensors’ observation data processing, including correlation, orbit determination, and maintenance of a catalogue of space objects observed by the S3T sensors. The routine operations were initiated in July 2016. ESA is supporting CDTI in the development and procurement of the S3T system (CDTI 2017). Centu-1 is owned by Deimos, and it has been operationally contributing to the S3T system. It is used for surveillance, contributing to build up and maintain the S3T catalogue (CDTI 2017).

The Monostatic Space Surveillance Radar (MSSR) is a close-monostatic L-band radar, owned by the European Space Agency (ESA). It is located at the Santorcaz military naval base, about 30 km from Madrid (Spain). Through an agreement between the Spanish Ministry of Defence and ESA, the radar has been operational within the S3TSN since the end of the year 2016. The Ministry of Defence has participated in the selection of the site of the future advanced surveillance radar SST, as well as data policy and information security. In June 2015, it carried out the Transfer of the Operative Control of the Radar SSA of Santorcaz from ESA to the Air Force (CDTI 2017). The monostatic breadboard surveillance radar was developed within ESA’s SSA Program. Following the completion of its development and upon the Spanish government’s request, the operation of the Radar was transferred on a loan basis to the Spanish Ministry of Defence for use in Spain’s national SST activities. In relation to surveillance systems and spatial tracking, the Ministry of Defence supports the CDTI in the participation of Spain to the EU SST program (Spanish Ministry of Defence 2015a).

The United Kingdom

Space and Security Budget

Following the British vote to leave the European Union in 2016, the UK’s economy has been experiencing political and economic uncertainty (Euroconsult 2019). UK covered an estimated defense expenditure of GBP 45.2 billion or 2.14% of GDP in 2018, above the NATO guideline of 2% of GDP. 22.4% of the 2018 estimated budget was allocated to equipment expenditure (NATO 2019). The UK government expenditure on space amounted to GBP694 million in 2018. 65% of the space budget was dedicated to civil space activities with top three expenditures in space science and exploration, Earth observation, and telecommunications. The UK’s GBP 455 million civil space budget comprised of GBP 100 million invested in national programs, GBP 293 million contribution to ESA, and GBP 62 million contribution to EUMETSAT (Euroconsult 2019). The defense space expenditures equaled to GBP 240 million in 2018 primarily channeled toward military satellite communications (Skynet 5), while it is expected to grow for the future generation of the Skynet system and the British GNSS as an alternative to Galileo (Euroconsult 2019).

Space and Security Activities and Programs

Earth Observation (EO): Intelligence Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)

Traditionally, the UK has not put much emphasis on developing its own Earth observation satellites, because it has been relying on privileged access to relevant US assets (Schrogl et al. 2015). The UK Air and Space Doctrine explicitly mentions the relevance of environmental monitoring from space for security objectives (UK Ministry of Defence 2017).

UK Space Agency published in October 2013 a Strategy for Earth Observation from Space (2013–2016) in the context of the National Space Policy and the National Space Security Policy (April 2014). The strategy concentrates on civil EO requirements but recognizes that some civilian space systems could be dual-use in nature and be capable of supporting national security requirements (UKSA 2013).

In response to a recent parliamentary question, the Ministry of Defence elaborated on UK activities in the field of intelligence, surveillance, targeting, acquisition, and reconnaissance capability (ISTAR), stating that the activities are in line with the Strategic Defence and Security Review “A Secure and Prosperous UK” of 23 November 2015. Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance and Information Systems and Services (ISS) are managed by the Ministry of Defence under a combined portfolio approach (UK Ministry of Defence 2012).

The Royal Air Force is strengthened by its ISTAR fleet in aerial reconnaissance. In the field of combat-aircraft ISTAR, the tactical imagery intelligence wing is an independent group force element, based at RAF Marham and covering a wide span of imagery intelligence missions. Its tasks include the exploitation of EO and infrared (IR) imagery, producing intelligence products in direct support of deployed operations (RAF 2012).

Resulting from the 2017 Defence Equipment Plan, the UK intends to spend GBP 5 billion through the ISTAR Operating Centre in the period 2017–2027. This investment includes spending on chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) detection and countermeasures; electronic countermeasures; a range of equipment including communications, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance; air defense; air traffic management; and tactical data links (UK Ministry of Defence 2018).

Civil spending in UK space activities is split between ESA, EUMETSAT, and national programs. In 2011, the UK invested GBP 21 million into NovaSAR-S, a low-cost SAR satellite developed by SSTL with maritime, forestry, flooding, and agriculture applications. The UK government provided GBP 21 million to assist in the development and launch of NovaSAR-S and will also benefit from access to the SAR data, significantly boosting the UK’s sovereign Earth observation capabilities for applications such as ship detection and identification, oil spill detection, forestry monitoring, and disaster monitoring, particularly flood detection and assessment (SSTL 2017). NovaSAR-S was launched in September 2018.

The Zephyr S next-generation High-Altitude Pseudo Satellite (HAPS) is a new variant of the Zephyr family of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) owned by Airbus Defence and Space. Zephyr S is a production variant of Zephyr 8 demonstrator. The new variant is intended for a variety of military, security, and civil missions, including maritime surveillance, border patrol, intelligence, reconnaissance, navigation, satellite-like communications, missile detection, environmental surveillance, signals intelligence (SIGINT), continuous photo capturing, and humanitarian and disaster relief. Development on the Zephyr 8 HAPS program began in April 2014. The UK Ministry of Defence awarded a contract to Airbus Defence and Space for the production and operation of two Zephyr S solar-powered unmanned aircraft systems in February 2016. Airbus has partnered with four British small and medium enterprises, and two universities to help develop key technologies in aerostructures, energy storage, and propulsion for what it described as “the next generation of Zephyr” (AIN 2018). Combining solar power plus rechargeable batteries, the Zephyr S reached a world record for longest duration flight for an unmanned aircraft without refueling in January 2019. Just under 26 days, Zephyr S demonstrated that a long-term mission is feasible for a solely solar-electric, stratospheric-level unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) flying above the weather and conventional air traffic (PowerElectronics 2019).

Satellite Communications (SATCOM)

The UK’s secure SATCOM capability is provided through a Private Finance Initiative (PFI) with Airbus, which is managed by Joint Forces Command. It provides a secure and resilient communications capability through the Skynet series of satellites and other SATCOM resources from other providers. UK partners and allies also use Skynet bandwidth, which bolsters collaborative ties, and, similarly, lost or degraded capabilities can be replaced by negotiating access to their space services. Commercial bandwidth can provide redundancy for military systems, but there are potential security risks if military communications are enabled by commercial satellites, which could also host foreign payloads. There are also risks in using commercial bandwidth because the terms of service provision could be significantly less than that provided through a dedicated military system (UK Ministry of Defence 2017).

Astrium Services (ASV) (now Airbus) is the service provider that has developed the widest array of SATCOMs for military and security purposes in a market-oriented pattern. With its Paradigm subsidiary, Airbus has built a commercial capacity under a long-term PFI contract with the UK Ministry of Defence, for the provision of military satellite communications services to 2022. Since 2003, Paradigm operates the five satellites of UK Skynet (Schrogl et al. 2015). In 2012, the UK government announced it would retake ownership of the Skynet system including the four spacecraft and ground segment at the end of the supply contract in 2022. The excess capacity is leased to other military customers in the USA, Canada, France, and NATO. Though the PFI with Airbus has permitted military requirements being met, the outsourcing may have decreased Ministry of Defence technical know-how and resources, hampering program management of the follow-up scheme which could be valued at 6 billion GBP (Schrogl et al. 2015).

A first element of a new British military satellite communications capability to replace the current Skynet 5 network has been awarded to Airbus Defence and Space without a competition. Negotiations to complete the deal to supply the Skynet 6A satellite are ongoing. The Skynet 6 program is packaged into three elements: the stopgap spacecraft to be built by Airbus, a service delivery package to manage ground operations from 2022, and an enduring capability program to provide future communication system capacity beyond the end of the next decade. Ministry of Defence officials said that the default position on the two future, and larger, parts of the Skynet 6 program would be competitive. A third, smaller competition to appoint an acquisition partner to act as the customer’s friend in the Skynet 6 procurement is also expected to move forward. Officials said they expect a competition to appoint a new service delivery partner to take over the running of the ground operations from 2022. The enduring capability is also in line to be competed as things stand. The final part of the Skynet 6 requirement will be the introduction of a future enduring communications capability, which will partly be provided by satellites (Defense News 2017). The Skynet 6A geostationary military communications satellite is scheduled to be operational by mid-2025 (Space News 2017b).

Resulting from the UK Defence Equipment Plan 2017, published on 31 January 2018, the UK plans to invest GBP 22.9 billion on Information Systems and Services (ISS) in the period 2017–2027, including satellite communications. The UK foresees a change in its procurement strategy for the Future Beyond Line of Sight Strategic Communications program based on a PFI, the acquisition of satellites, and cost reduction for the existing Skynet 5 network (UK Ministry of Defence 2017).

The advanced multi-mode secure SATCOM modem called Proteus was initially developed by Airbus UK for the Ministry of Defence, specifically for use on the Skynet 5 system. Airbus is developing a stripped-down version that could be used outside the UK for partner countries. The Proteus modem offers robust protection against jamming and interception and is suitable for installation in fixed and mobile platforms through super high-frequency and extremely high-frequency SATCOM bands (Airbus 2018).

Almost all civil spending on satellite communications technology development is channeled via ESA.

Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)

The UK has announced its plans to develop a national alternative to the EU's Galileo system (The Times 2018). The Government Office for Science procured a study into GNSS dependency rendered public in January 2018. The report sets out the findings of a review exploring the UK’s dependency on GNSS covering threats and vulnerabilities, sector dependencies, mitigation strategy, and standards and testing. The Blackett report recommends measures to make UK critical services more resilient to disruption or loss of GNSS. Implementation of the Blackett recommendations is being overseen by a UK Cabinet Office Blackett Review Implementation Team (BRIG). The technical aspects of implementing the recommendations are being led by a (PNTTG), reporting to the BRIG (UK Government 2018).

Announced in May 2017, QinetiQ and Rockwell Collins aimed to develop under a new partnership next-generation multi-constellation Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers. The focus would lie on developing a family of multi-constellation “open-service” GNSS receivers. Based on the high-level overview they have provided, the two companies are collectively looking to provide military and government aircraft operators with the ability to use and switch between use of existing and future GNSS constellations. Outside of aircraft GNSS development, QinetiQ and Rockwell Collins will also look to develop GNSS receivers designed to “reduce operational costs for ground troops, vehicles and high-dynamics GNSS-guided weapons” (Aviation Today 2017).

The British Isles continuous GNSS Facility (BIGF) supports research scientists with archived RINEX format GNSS data, metadata, and derivative products. This unique facility in the UK is hosted at the Nottingham Geospatial Institute – a center for related postgraduate teaching and research, at the University of Nottingham. BIGF was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) from 2002 to 2018 and is now funded by United Kingdom Research and Innovation (UKRI) since 2018. The archive comprises data from GPS and GLONASS satellites, from a high-density network of around 160 continuously recording stations, located throughout mainland Britain, Northern Ireland, and Ireland (BIGF 2012).

Brexit does not prevent the UK as a third country from using the encrypted signal of Galileo provided that the relevant agreements between the EU and the UK are in place. Merely having access to PRS at some future date (as requested by the US and Norway) will not be good enough for London. The UK wants British companies to continue to participate in all aspects of the development and build of Galileo. Major contributions have been made by Surrey Satellite Technology Limited (SSTL), which has prepared the navigation payloads on every operational satellite in the sky; the UK arm of Airbus, which controls the satellites at its center in Portsmouth: and CGI (formerly Logica), which has been instrumental in designing the PRS itself (BBC 2018).

UKSA has written in May 2018 to all UK companies currently authorized to work on the secure elements of Galileo (including for instance SSTL, QinetiQ, and CGI), asking them to consult UKSA before taking on future contracts relating to the design and development of the program and its encrypted service. By reminding British companies that they need the express security clearance from ministers to engage in new contracts, London was essentially saying to Brussels that it has the power to stop those companies from handing over technical knowledge on PRS to firms in the EU-27 (BBC 2018). Yet, a UK GNSS will not add significantly new capabilities for defense as the UK will continue to have access to the precise signals of the American GPS and may access Galileo PRS after conclusion of a specific agreement for PRS access for third countries (as requested by the US and Norway). UK GNSS would only address one of the major losses in space power to the UK because of Brexit. It does not address being shut out of GOVSATCOM, EU SSA, and Copernicus (Defence in Depth 2018).

Space Situational Awareness (SSA)

The UK holds three space surveillance systems, two radar systems and one optical system. The latter is a telescope managed by the British National Space Centre (BNSC) and named Starbrook. It is located in Cyprus and has an added experimental survey sensor since 2006. The two radar systems are the Fylingdales complex and the Chilbolton facility. The first is part of the US Space Surveillance Network and is operated by British armed forces. The second, CAMRa (Advanced Meteorological Radar), is managed by the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and is mainly used for atmospheric and ionospheric research (European Parliament 2015).

The Daedalus experiment – part of the Space Situational Awareness Project in DSTL’s Space Programme – is exploring the effect on satellites of so-called Icarus “deorbit sails.” When deployed, the sail increases drag, causing a controlled descent into the Earth’s atmosphere where the satellite will burn up (UK Government 2017).

Concluding Remarks

This chapter provides evidence of the trend toward increasing relevance for security and defense in national space and security programs. “Space and security,” both in its security from space and security in space aspects, are progressively contributing to further integration of space activities. Traditionally, only civilian space activities including for instance Earth observation, telecommunications, human spaceflight, space transportation, and technology development were subject of cooperation projects at intergovernmental and supranational levels. Security or defense related space programs were kept at the national level or dealt with bilaterally or multilaterally in ad hoc cooperative programs. These trends demonstrate an evolution of the largest European countries’ priorities from strictly civil-oriented applications to also encompassing security and defense ones, facilitating synergies based on the dual nature of space. National space programs with security or defense dimensions, in combination with the EU and ESA programs, demonstrate alignment toward the use of space for security and defense. To conclude, the increasing relevance of security and defense in Europe, to some extent, could be framed as the necessity for Europe to take its security and defense into its own hands vis-à-vis other global space powers. Hence, this appears to be a strong driver in the current geopolitical context.