Abstract
Oriented cell divisions are crucial throughout plant development to define the final size and shape of organs and tissues. As most of the tissues in mature roots and stems are derived from vascular tissues, studying cell proliferation in the vascular cell lineage is of great importance. Although perturbations of vascular development are often visible already at the whole plant macroscopic phenotype level, a more detailed characterization of the vascular anatomy, cellular organization, and differentiation status of specific vascular cell types can provide insights into which pathway or developmental program is affected. In particular, defects in the frequency or orientation of cell divisions can be reliably identified from the number of vascular cell files. Here, we provide a detailed description of the different clearing, staining, and imaging techniques that allow precise phenotypic analysis of vascular tissues in different organs of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana throughout development, including the quantification of cell file numbers, differentiation status of vascular cell types, and expression of reporter genes.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
De Rybel B, Mähönen AP, Helariutta Y, Weijers D (2016) Plant vascular development: from early specification to differentiation. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 17:30–40. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm.2015.6
Lucas WJ, Groover A, Lichtenberger R et al (2013) The plant vascular system: evolution, development and functions. J Integr Plant Biol 55:294–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/jipb.12041
Scheres B, Wolkenfelt H, Willemsen V et al (1994) Embryonic origin of the Arabidopsis primary root and root meristem initials. Development 120:2475–2487
De Rybel B, Möller B, Yoshida S et al (2013) A bHLH complex controls embryonic vascular tissue establishment and indeterminate growth in Arabidopsis. Dev Cell 24:426–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DEVCEL.2012.12.013
Yoshida S, BarbierdeReuille P, Lane B et al (2014) Genetic control of plant development by overriding a geometric division rule. Dev Cell 29:75–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2014.02.002
De Rybel B, Adibi M, Breda AS et al (2014) Integration of growth and patterning during vascular tissue formation in Arabidopsis. Science 345(6197):1255215. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1255215
Mähönen AP, Bonke M, Kauppinen L et al (2000) A novel two-component hybrid molecule regulates vascular morphogenesis of the Arabidopsis root. Genes Dev 14:2938–2943. https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.189200
Smetana O, Mäkilä R, Lyu M et al (2019) High levels of auxin signalling define the stem-cell organizer of the vascular cambium. Nature 565(7740):485–489. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0837-0
Shi D, Lebovka I, Loṕez-Salmeroń V et al (2019) Bifacial cambium stem cells generate xylem and phloem during radial plant growth. Development 146:dev171355. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.171355
Chiang MH, Greb T (2019) How to organize bidirectional tissue production? Curr Opin Plant Biol 51:15–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2019.03.003
Sehr EM, Agusti J, Lehner R et al (2010) Analysis of secondary growth in the Arabidopsis shoot reveals a positive role of jasmonate signalling in cambium formation. Plant J 63:811–822. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2010.04283.x
Mazur E, Kurczyńska EU, Friml J (2014) Cellular events during interfascicular cambium ontogenesis in inflorescence stems of Arabidopsis. Protoplasma 251:1125–1139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00709-014-0620-5
Nieminen K, Blomster T, Helariutta Y, Mähönen AP (2015) Vascular cambium development. Arabidopsis Book 13:e0177. https://doi.org/10.1199/tab.0177
Scheres B, Di Laurenzio L, Willemsen V et al (1995) Mutations affecting the radial organisation of the Arabidopsis root display specific defects throughout the embryonic axis. Development 121:53–62
Mähönen AP, Higuchi M, Törmäkangas K et al (2006) Cytokinins regulate a bidirectional phosphorelay network in Arabidopsis. Curr Biol 16:1116–1122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.04.030
Truernit E, Bauby H, Belcram K et al (2012) OCTOPUS, a polarly localised membrane-associated protein, regulates phloem differentiation entry in Arabidopsis thaliana. Development 139:1306–1315. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.072629
Scacchi E, Osmont KS, Beuchat J et al (2009) Dynamic, auxin-responsive plasma membrane-to-nucleus movement of Arabidopsis BRX. Development 136:2059–2067. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.035444
Mähönen AP, Bishopp A, Higuchi M et al (2006) Cytokinin signaling and its inhibitor AHP6 regulate cell fate during vascular development. Science 311(5757):94–98. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1118875
Miyashima S, Roszak P, Sevilem I et al (2019) Mobile PEAR transcription factors integrate positional cues to prime cambial growth. Nature 565:490–494. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0839-y
Smet W, Sevilem I, de Luis Balaguer MA et al (2019) DOF2.1 controls cytokinin-dependent vascular cell proliferation downstream of TMO5/LHW. Curr Biol 29:520–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CUB.2018.12.041
Ohashi-Ito K, Bergmann DC (2007) Regulation of the Arabidopsis root vascular initial population by Lonesome highway. Development 134:2959–2968. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.006296
Ohashi-Ito K, Matsukawa M, Fukuda H (2013) An atypical bHLH transcription factor regulates early xylem development downstream of auxin. Plant Cell Physiol 54:398–405. https://doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pct013
Ohashi-Ito K, Oguchi M, Kojima M et al (2013) Auxin-associated initiation of vascular cell differentiation by LONESOME HIGHWAY. Development 140:765–769. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.087924
Ohashi-Ito K, Saegusa M, Iwamoto K et al (2014) A bHLH complex activates vascular cell division via cytokinin action in root apical meristem. Curr Biol 24:2053–2058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.07.050
Smet W, De Rybel B (2016) Genetic and hormonal control of vascular tissue proliferation. Curr Opin Plant Biol 29:50–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PBI.2015.11.004
Truernit E, Bauby H, Dubreucq B et al (2008) High-resolution whole-mount imaging of three-dimensional tissue organization and gene expression enables the study of phloem development and structure in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 20:1494–1503. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.107.056069
Warner CA, Biedrzycki ML, Jacobs SS et al (2014) An optical clearing technique for plant tissues allowing deep imaging and compatible with fluorescence microscopy. Plant Physiol 166:1684–1687. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.114.244673
Kurihara D, Mizuta Y, Sato Y, Higashiyama T (2015) ClearSee: a rapid optical clearing reagent for whole-plant fluorescence imaging. Development 142:4168–4179. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.127613
Ursache R, Andersen TG, Marhavý P, Geldner N (2018) A protocol for combining fluorescent proteins with histological stains for diverse cell wall components. Plant J 93:399–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.13784
Beeckman T, Viane R (2000) Embedding thin plant specimens for oriented sectioning. Biotech Histochem 75:23–26
De Smet I, Chaerle P, Vanneste S et al (2004) An easy and versatile embedding method for transverse sections. J Microsc 213:76–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2818.2004.01269.x
Frohlich VC (2008) Phase contrast and differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy. J Vis Exp (17):844. https://doi.org/10.3791/844
Schindelin J, Arganda-Carreras I, Frise E et al (2012) Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis. Nat Methods 9:676–682. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2019
Rosenberg M, Bartl P, Leško J (1960) Water-soluble methacrylate as an embedding medium for the preparation of ultrathin sections. J Ultrasruct Res 4:298–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5320(60)80024-X
Litwin JA (1985) Light microscopic histochemistry on plastic sections. Prog Histochem Cytochem 16:3–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6336(85)80001-2
Yeung EC, Chan CKW (2015) The glycol methacrylate embedding resins-Technovit 7100 and 8100. In: Plant microtechniques and protocols. Springer International Publishing, Berlin, pp 67–82
de Oliveira JMS (2015) Simultaneous dehydration and infiltration with (2-hydroxyethyl)- methacrylate (HEMA) for lipid preservation in plant tissues. Acta Bot Brasilica 29:207–212. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-33062014abb3755
Idänheimo N, Gauthier A, Salojärvi J et al (2014) The Arabidopsis thaliana cysteine-rich receptor-like kinases CRK6 and CRK7 protect against apoplastic oxidative stress. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 445:457–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.013
Musielak TJ, Schenkel L, Kolb M et al (2015) A simple and versatile cell wall staining protocol to study plant reproduction. Plant Reprod 28:161–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00497-015-0267-1
Pradhan Mitra P, Loqué D (2014) Histochemical staining of Arabidopsis thaliana secondary cell wall elements. J Vis Exp (87):51381. https://doi.org/10.3791/51381
Chaffey N, Cholewa E, Regan S, Sundberg B (2002) Secondary xylem development in Arabidopsis: a model for wood formation. Physiol Plant 114:594–600. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-3054.2002.1140413.x
de Reuille PB, Ragni L (2017) Vascular morphodynamics during secondary growth. In: Methods in molecular biology. Humana Press Inc., pp 103–125
Acknowledgments
This work was funded by the European Research Council (ERC Starting Grant TORPEDO-714055); and an EMBO long-term fellowship (ALTF 1005-2019) to M.G.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Arents, H.E., Eswaran, G., Glanc, M., Mähönen, A.P., De Rybel, B. (2022). Means to Quantify Vascular Cell File Numbers in Different Tissues. In: Caillaud, MC. (eds) Plant Cell Division. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2382. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1744-1_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1744-1_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-0716-1743-4
Online ISBN: 978-1-0716-1744-1
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols