Abstract
Sustainable food production for a rapidly growing global population is a major challenge of this century. In order to meet the demand for food production, an additional land area of 2.7–4.9 Mha year−1 will be required for agriculture. However, one-third of arable lands are already contaminated; therefore, the use of polluted lands will have to feature highly in modern agriculture. The use of such lands comes, however, with additional challenges, and suitable agrotechnological interventions are essential for ensuring the safety and sustainability of relevant production system. There are also other issues to consider, such as cost–benefit analysis, the possible entry of pollutants into the phytoproducts, certification and marketing of such products, in order to achieve the large-scale exploitation of polluted lands. The present article addresses the sustainability challenges of crop production from polluted lands and briefly outlines the plausible strategies for using polluted lands for sustainable agricultural extensification.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
1 Increasing crop production for a growing population: the need of the hour
The population of the Earth is expected to reach ~9.5 billion people by the mid-twenty-first century (Godfray et al. 2010). Such an explosive rise in population will create the demand for a 70 % increase in food, feed and fiber production (Montanarella and Vargas 2012). Perhaps one of the greatest challenges is to increase the food production for a rapidly growing population in a sustainable manner (Foley et al. 2011). However, land is a limited resource and agricultural use of land will be in competition with land use for habitation, infrastructure and industry. Any modifications to the existing patterns of land use will affect the resilience of ecological and socioeconomic systems (Anderson 2010). Therefore, the dilemma is to increase the crop production without a significant increase in the use of arable land (Godfray and Garnett 2014). Accomplishing these goals will become increasingly difficult under changing climatic conditions and the resulting effects on crop growth, yield and disease susceptibility. The changing climate may also influence the nutritional quality of crops (Myers et al. 2014). There is a pressing need to develop suitable strategies for increasing global food production without any additional social, economic or ecological pressures (Rockström et al. 2009; Lambin and Meyfrodt 2011; Dubey et al. 2016).
One strategy to address these problems has been to leverage ‘omic technologies’ to engineer genetically modified (GM) crops with enhanced productivity, nutritional quality and/or stress tolerance. A significant drawback to this approach is the growing public resistance to GM crops (Ronald 2011), based principally on concerns about their perceived safety, the lack of scientific information on the long-term effects of GM crop consumption and the ethical considerations associated with genetic modification (Gilbert 2013). Intensifying traditional agricultural practices has been suggested as an immediate strategy for increasing the global food supply, but the excessive use of agrochemicals during the last few decades has already resulted in the severe pollution of biosphere (Abhilash et al. 2013a, b; Popp et al. 2013). Hence, ~25 % of global land resources are highly degraded and ~44 % are moderately degraded with the level of contamination is steadily increasing. Another strategy that could be used to meet global food demands would involve the safe and productive use of polluted lands to provide an additional avenue for agricultural extensification. There are a number of challenges associated with this approach, including the possible entry of pollutants into the phytoproducts. The present article examines the sustainability of crop production on polluted lands and provides potential strategies for converting polluted lands to an agricultural landscape to foster a bioeconomy (Jacobsen et al. 2013) for sustainable development.
2 Crop production on polluted lands: an environmental point of view
Land is a critical resource as it supports local food webs and contributes to global biogeochemical cycles. Land resources also provide agricultural production and support numerous other human needs and services. The terrestrial environment is also a primary sink for pollutants (Banwart 2011). The growing population exerts tremendous pressure on land for food, feed, fiber and biofuel production. It is estimated that an additional 2.7–4.9 Mha year−1 will be required to meet the food demand of growing populations (Lambin and Meyfrodt 2011). The agricultural extensification of new landscapes at the cost of existing forests, wetlands and grasslands is not a sustainable option as it accelerates the biodiversity loss and other environmental issues (Garnett et al. 2013). However, by adopting prudent scientific and technological interventions, polluted lands could be utilized safely for agricultural production (Lambin and Meyfrodt 2011). Polluted lands are generally perceived as a potential threat to human health and food safety, but the demand for arable lands will inevitably require that these lands be considered as an untapped resource for environmental and agricultural sustainability (Abhilash et al. 2013a, b; Weyens et al. 2009). Using polluted lands for agriculture will not only address the increased food demand of growing populations but will also restore those degraded lands to productive use rather leaving them dormant and unused. There is also the potential to couple agricultural production on polluted lands with the cultivation of biomass and biofuel crops to meet growing energy demand (Weyens et al. 2009) and with biofortification efforts to improve the nutrient content of agricultural products (Zhao and McGrath 2009). Nevertheless, there are several ecotoxicological, economic and social considerations associated with crop production on polluted lands that must be thoroughly addressed (Tripathi et al. 2014a). The following sections provide (1) a state of the art of crop productions from polluted lands and (2) strategies for simultaneously minimizing the potential risk to human receptors while converting crop production on polluted lands into a sustainable enterprise.
3 Polluted lands for edible crop production and biofortification
A selected list of crop plants being tested under field and controlled conditions is provided in Table 1. The uptake and accumulation of pollutants in crops vary with species or cultivars, the type of pollutants and level of contamination (Khan et al. 2010; Ismail et al. 2014). For instance, a field trial on a moderately Cd-contaminated (0.69–0.96 mg kg−1) site in China based on a rotation system of rape (Brassica napus L.) seed to rice (Oryza sativa L.) restricted the phytoaccumulation of Cd in rice. The rape seed cultivar Zhucang Huzai accumulated a high Cd concentration (>0.2 mg kg−1), whereas the Cd concentration in cultivar Chuanyou II-93 was well below the limit as given in Table 1. Similarly, Cd concentrations of the brown rice were below the permissible limits (Yu et al. 2014). The concentrations of As, Cu, Co, Pb and Zn in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) growing on the contaminated soils of the Zambian copper belt were reported by Kríbek et al. (2014). Interestingly, the level of Cu in leaves and tubers of cassava grown in strongly contaminated areas do not exceed the daily maximum tolerance limit for dietary intake (0.5 mg kg−1 body weight). However, the highest tolerable weekly ingestion of Pb and As exceeded the relevant dietary limits in the vicinity of smelters.
Warren et al. (2003) conducted a detailed field trial to assess the uptake of As by beet (Beta vulgaris L.), calabrese vegetables like cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var botrytus), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), radish (Raphanus sativus L) and spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) growing on As-contaminated soil (748 mg kg−1) near an As smelter in Cornwall, UK. This soil had been amended with ferrous sulfate and lime in an effort to remediate the soils through precipitation of Fe oxides in the contaminated soil. In all field trials except for spinach, ferrous sulfate addition significantly reduced the As translocation to edible parts. Moreover, the application of 0.2 % Fe oxides to soil surface (0–10 cm) reduced the As uptake by 22 %, whereas the application of 0.5 % Fe oxides reduced the As availability by 32 % (Warren et al. 2003). Madejón et al. (2011) employed traditional agricultural practices in a heavily contaminated soil in Southern Spain to limit the accumulation of As, Cu, Pb and Zn in onion (Allium cepa L.), lettuce, chard (B. vulgaris L.), potato and lemon (Citrus limon L. Burm.f.). The metal concentration was low in crops when the soils were limed annually and with animal manure application (Madejón et al. 2011). In all cases except for Zn and Pb, the accumulation of metals was below the regulatory limits. The heavy metal concentrations in vegetables growing on a contaminated fluvial deposit of Gilgit, Pakistan (Khan et al. 2010), were 0.24–2.1 mg Cd kg−1, 15–44 mg Pb kg−1 and 40–247 mg Zn kg−1, values generally above the regulatory limit.
Biofortification of edible plants is another avenue that could be achieved through cropping on soil polluted with contaminants that are essential micronutrients (e.g., Fe, Zn, Cu Mg and Se) (Zhu et al. 2009; Vamerali et al. 2014). Selenium is an important dietary micronutrient required for animals and beneficial for plants (Madejón et al. 2011). Selenomethionine (SeMet) is the major chemical species of Se in several grains like barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rye (Secale cereale L.) contributing to about 60–80 % of the total Se content (Stadlober et al. 2001). X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopic analysis of a rice sample obtained from a Se-contaminated region of Enshi district in south-central China revealed that Se in rice can be found predominantly as selenomethylcysteine (SeMeSeCys) in addition to SeMet (Williams et al. 2009). Selenomethylcysteine is believed to have anti-carcinogenic properties. Moreover, both SeMeSeCys and SeMet provide supplementary health benefits over inorganic Se (Rayman 2008; Rayman et al. 2008). Normally, the Se levels in the rice were reported to have 33–50 % (Beilstein et al. 1991). Since soils contaminated with Se are reported worldwide, these soils could be used for cropping Se-accumulating crops for biofortification. Selenium can also lower the uptake of Pb in rice, thereby lowering the accumulation of Pb in grains (Yu et al. 2014). Hence, cropping on Se-contaminated soils might also reduce the uptake of other pollutants as well. Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) growing on contaminated soils with elevated concentrations of Fe, Cu and Zn displayed enhanced height and number of capsules per plant (Rastogi et al. 2014). Since these metals are also essential micronutrients, cultivating linseed on metal-contaminated soil could enhance nutrient density in seeds. Vamerali et al. (2014) studied the biofortification and remediation potential of radish and maize (Zea mays L.) cultivated in a pyrite waste dump at Torviscosa (Udine), Italy. Although the accumulation of various heavy metals in maize grains (in mg kg−1) such as Cd (<0.001), Co (<0.002), Cr (0.12), Cu (3.28), Mn (6.17), Ni (0.41), Pb (<0.001) and Zn (40.2) was found to be lower, the concentrations of Cd (2.34) and Pb (4.20) in radish were higher than the permissible limit set by the European Union. There are additional studies reporting that the accumulation of toxic metals in edible parts of plants growing on polluted soils falls within the regulatory limits. For example, the Cd, Pb and Zn accumulation in maize grain (Meers et al. 2010), As accumulation in beet root and lettuce (Warren et al. 2003) and the Ni concentration in carrot and onion (Stasinos and Zabetakis 2013) were below the limit. The above cases demonstrate that crop production on contaminated lands is being widely investigated (Figs. 1, 2) and that cultivation of crops on polluted soils does not immediately result in edible tissues with pollutant concentrations that exceed regulatory limits. Such results offer proof of concept that the utilization of such lands for agriculture is possible.
4 Polluted lands for floriculture
The cultivation of edible plants on polluted lands would even if successful be under continual scrutiny because of the potential for accumulation of pollutants in edible tissues (Dziubanek et al. 2015). Another approach could be to restrict cultivation to non-food crops, such as those used for floriculture, horticulture, biomass, biofuels or production of commercially important chemicals (Lal et al. 2008; Jamil et al. 2009). In this context, cultivating ornamental plants on contaminated lands is a logical choice as it provides economic benefits, aesthetic value and possibly also ecological services during propagation to birds, honeybees, butterflies and other species (Lal et al. 2008; Ling-Zhi et al. 2011). There is likely to be increased demand of flowers and other ornamental plants in the future as the standard of living improves in many parts of the world (Wang and Zhou 2005). This creates a potential future scenario where floriculture crops will also compete with food crops for arable lands. Shifting floriculture production to contaminated lands could represent a viable strategy (Table 1). Species like marigold (Tagetes sp.) (Lal et al. 2008; Chatterjee and Singh 2012), scarlet sage (Salvia splendens L.), sweet hibiscus (Abelmoschus manihot L.) (Wang and Zhou 2005), chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum indicum L.) (Lal et al. 2008; González-Chávez and Carrillo-González 2013), gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus Andrews) (Lal et al. 2008), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) (Chatterjee and Singh 2012) and cock’s comb (Celocia cristata L.) are already being tested in fields (Lal et al. 2008; Ling-Zhi et al. 2011; Wang and Zhou 2005). Native ornamental species growing near to the polluted sites can also be used for floriculture as they show plasticity and ability to grow in polluted soils (e.g., metal excluders) (de Abreu et al. 2012). For example, species of Cistus thrive in metal-contaminated soils. Cistus populifolius and C. salviifolius and their hybrid Cistus × hybridus showed tolerance to hazardous metals and are non-accumulators of As, Cu, Pb, Fe and Sb (de Abreu et al. 2012). Similarly, Erica australis, E. andevalensis, Lavandula luisierra, Daphne gnidium, Rumex induratus, Ulex eriocladus, Juncus and Genista hirsutus showed metal tolerance when grown on sites contaminated with multiple metals (Anawar et al. 2011). Continued research such as this is essential to maximize the profitability and ensure the safety of ornamentals produced on polluted lands.
5 Polluted lands for biomass and biofuel production
Fuel versus food production is another global debate as it involves competition for available land. Shifting biomass and biofuel production to polluted land could be a promising approach to overcome this competition (Cai et al. 2011; Edrisi and Abhilash 2016). Moreover, the production of biofuel crops from polluted lands may also reduce CO2 emissions and pollution (Delucchi 2006). There are several candidate species that could be considered, such as physic nut (Jatropha curcas L.), white leadtree (Leucena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit), castor bean (Ricinus cummunis L.), Indian beech (Pongamia pinnata L. Panigrahi), poplar (Populus sp.), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) and Miscanthus giganteus that are known to have the potential to grow in polluted and degraded land (Cai et al. 2011; Olivares et al. 2013; Tang et al. 2010). Physic nut is usually well adapted to arid to semiarid climate and can grow in marginal lands, fly ash dumps and pesticide-contaminated soils (Edrisi et al. 2015; Abhilash et al. 2013a, b; Edrisi and Abhilash 2016). Similarly, leadtree and castor bean have the potential to grow and remediate soils contaminated with either organic or inorganic pollutants or a mixture of both the pollutants. These species showed a capacity to accumulate contaminants like Cd (0.43 mg kg−1) and DDTs (2.27 mg kg−1) (Huang et al. 2011). Poplar is another promising species that can grow in many multi-contaminant sites (e.g., TCE and heavy metals) (Weyens et al. 2013). The hybrid M. giganteus has potential to grow in Cd-, Zn- and Pb-contaminated (Pavel et al. 2014) lands and also has a significant potential for bioethanol production (Chen et al. 2011). A recent field study revealed that among the naturally growing plants on heavy metal-contaminated sites, three biofuel plants, castor bean, prickly acacia (Acacia nilotica L.), and Acacia modesta (Wall.) were found to have the potential to accumulate Fe, Zn, Cr, Pb, Ni, As and Cd (Irshad et al. 2014). Several other potential biofuel crops like common reed (Phragmites australis L.), Eucalyptus spp., camelina (Camelina sativa L. Crantz), wild cane (Arundo donax L.), hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), Indian mustard (B. juncea L. Czern), linseed and corn have been reported to grow successfully on single or mixed-pollutants lands (e.g., Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Pb, Zn, PAH, Atrazine, Cs, Ni, Co and Se) (Madejón et al. 2011; Rayman et al. 2008; Meers et al. 2010; Bonanno et al. 2013; Ruttens et al. 2011; Doty et al. 2009; Kline and Coleman 2010; Fairley 2011; Técher et al. 2011; Vandenhove and Hees 2005; Zaidi et al. 2006; Willscher et al. 2013; Bauddh and Singh 2012; Van Slycken et al. 2013; Murakami et al. 2007). Utilizing contaminated lands for biomass and biofuel production could not only increase energy security but may increase job opportunities and improve stakeholder involvement.
6 Strategies for minimizing the uptake and accumulation of toxic pollutants in edible parts
Perhaps the most significant concern is that the cultivation of edible plants on contaminated lands will lead to the accumulation of pollutants in edible parts and in excess of the regulatory limits (Ye-Tao et al. 2012). Preventing potential health risks is one of the major challenges for the large-scale exploitation of polluted lands for crop production. Although most of the plants have the inherent capacity to detoxify the pollutants, the complete detoxification or elimination of the accumulated pollutant does not occur (Abhilash et al. 2009). Hence, plants can in some situations biomagnify the pollutant in the food chain (Köhler and Triebskorn 2013). Additionally, the presence of toxic of pollutants in the contaminated lands may hamper the establishment, growth and yield of the crop plants. These detrimental effects may be accentuated if the polluted soil lacks the necessary nutrients or beneficial microorganisms necessary for adequate growth and development (Abhilash et al. 2013a, b). These conditions create the need for site-specific agronomic practices and agrotechnological interventions to enhance the plant growth under adverse conditions while also restricting the transfer of toxic pollutants to the phytoproducts (Dubey et al. 2014; Tripathi et al. 2014a, b, 2015a, b). Such strategies must be targeted toward (1) selecting and breeding for low-accumulating cultivars (phytoexcluders) for polluted lands, (2) reducing the bioavailability of pollutants in the soil and (3) restricting the uptake and translocation of pollutants to edible parts (Ye-Tao et al. 2012). The ensuing sections briefly highlight various strategies that can be employed to achieve these endpoints (Fig. 2).
Previous studies reported that the accumulation of pollutants in plants depends to a significant degree upon the plant species, cultivar and species-specific traits. For example; Ye-Tao et al. (2012) extensively reviewed the differences in the uptake of heavy metals among different cultivars of rice, maize, wheat and soybean (Glycine max L). A comprehensive screening of suitable species for cultivars with reduced accumulation is an important step in the cropping of polluted lands. Once suitable species/cultivars are identified, site-specific and crop-specific agronomic practices can be optimized to enhance the plant–microbe interactions, increase nutrient and fertilizer efficiency, and reduce the toxicity and phytoavailability of the pollutants (Gilbert 2013; Abhilash et al. 2012). Chemical immobilization, for example, is a cost-effective way to reduce the heavy metal uptake in plants through the addition of soil amendments such as lime-, phosphate- and silicon-based materials, or adsorption agents (e.g., zeolites, iron oxides, manganese oxides and clay minerals) (Ye-Tao et al. 2012; Kashem et al. 2010). Similarly, organic amendments such as peat, biochar, manure, sludge, agricultural residues, compost or vermicompost are potentially favorable as they reduce the availability of the pollutant to plants and also provide nutrients to plants. These amendments may also support microbial consortia capable of degrading organic pollutants. For example, Houben et al. (2013) reported that the addition of 10 % biochar to heavy metal-contaminated soil enhanced the production of rape seed while reducing the heavy metal concentration of Cd, Zn and Pb by 71, 87 and 92 %, respectively (Houben et al. 2013). Similarly, amending polluted soil with activated carbon, charcoal or compost reduced the dissolved PAH concentrations as well their uptake and accumulation in radish (Marchal et al. 2014). Humic acid has been recommended as an amendment to facilitate biofortification (Vamerali et al. 2014), whereas chelating agents were reported to be helpful in reducing the toxicity of metals. Crop rotation, soil tillage, intercropping, capping, drip irrigation, inoculation of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and endophytes and application of microbial enzymes can also enhance the bioremediation of soil contaminants and improve plant growth with reduced accumulation of pollutants in edible parts (Karigar and Rao 2011; Rao et al. 2010; Tripathi et al. 2013; Segura and Ramos 2013; Vishnoi and Srivastava 2008; Álvareza et al. 2012; Wang et al. 2004). Such agronomic practices can enhance the plant–microbe interactions necessary for sustainable agriculture on polluted lands.
Rhizospheric engineering is another approach to modify the rhizospheric environment to improve the fertility of contaminated lands while also degrading pollutants in the root zone (Kumar 2013; Abhilash and Dubey 2015). Such manipulations can change the soil microbial community structure (Hur et al. 2011), AMF colonization (Gao et al. 2012) and endophytic microbial association (Germaine et al. 2009). Furthermore, novel microbial strains and new degradation pathways could be identified from polluted system using the metatranscriptomics and metaproteomics approaches (Machado et al. 2012; Junttila and Rudd 2012). Advances in genomics and the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for variety of agricultural traits offer great opportunity to identify traits that could be exploited to enhance the growth, yield and stress tolerance of crops grown in contaminated soil. Root genetics is another promising avenue to be explored for modification of root architecture, rhizoremediation of pollutants, increased water use efficiency and improved nutrient uptake, translocation and use efficiency (Meister et al. 2014; Villordon et al. 2014; Tian et al. 2014; Schmidt 2014).
Exploring nanotechnology for enhancing the degradation of pollutants (nanoremediation) in contaminated site is another promising approach to minimize the entry of toxic pollutants into the plant parts (Karn et al. 2009). Nanoparticles (NPs) like nZVI, ZnO, TiO2, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes and bimetallic nanometals can be used for soil remediation (Karn et al. 2009). NPs can immobilize soil heavy metals such as Cr(VI), Pb(II), As(III) and Cd in contaminated soils and reduce the concentration of heavy metals in leachates to values lower than the soil elution standard regulatory threshold (Mallampati et al. 2013). NPs can also mediate redox reactions that convert heavy metals such as Cr(VI) to their less toxic trivalent form Cr(III) in tannery waste contaminated soil. The TCLP-leachable Pb fraction decreased from 66 to 10 % in a Pb-contaminated fire range soil following addition of NPs (Singh et al. 2012; Liu and Zhao 2013). NPs are also being used for the degradation of organic pollutants such as carbamates, chlorinated organic solvents, DDT and PCBs (Zhang 2003; El-Temsah 2013). The contaminated land remediated by nanoparticles could further be used for agricultural production. As with any emerging technology, nanotechnology too has its potential risks and benefits that need to be examined closely if it is to be developed and used for contaminated land remediation.
7 Concluding remarks and future perspectives
The continual increase in the human population coupled with scarcity of new arable lands creates the need to explore polluted lands for food production and other useful endpoints. However, there are many outstanding questions (Table 2) to be answered before the large-scale exploitation of such polluted lands for agricultural production can be implemented. It would be difficult at present to measure the sustainability of crop production from polluted land as currently there are no valuation techniques or benchmarks for evaluating the performance of a phytoremediation-based bioeconomy. As proposed in Fig. 3, a detailed SWOT analysis is the first and foremost step toward the exploitation of such polluted lands for crop production. The recent knowledge explosion in bioremediation coupled with the concepts of sustainability and plant biodiversity is the greatest strength of such innovative practices. Moreover, the large expanses of contaminated land offer opportunities for multiple cropping for food production as well as biorefineries for bioeconomy. However, the lack of agrotechnology for cropping in polluted soils and moratoriums against the use of GM crops in many countries are major setbacks for such efforts. Crop production on multiple and heavily polluted sites represents significant challenges, particularly given the health and safety risks associated with the phytoproducts. Specific agrotechnological interventions must be optimized for cropping on polluted lands, and suitable cultivars should be selected through genetic and molecular breeding. Public perception regarding this use of contaminated land must be changed and greater awareness of the need created. There is also a need for greater stakeholder involvement. Potential conflicts of interest (if any) between different stakeholders must be properly addressed and proper monitoring and eco-toxicological risk assessments should be done at each and every stages of cropping. Importantly, the certification and marketing of phytoproducts will be a great challenge and proper regulatory mechanisms should be established to ensure the safety of such products in the marketplace.
References
Abhilash PC, Dubey RK (2015) Root system engineering: prospects and promises. Trends Plant Sci 20:1360–1385
Abhilash PC, Jamil S, Singh N (2009) Transgenic plants for enhanced biodegradation and phytoremediation of organic xenobiotics. Biotechnol Adv 27:474–488
Abhilash PC, Powell JR, Singh HB, Singh BK (2012) Plant-microbe interactions: novel applications for exploitation in multipurpose remediation technologies. Trend Biotechnol 30:416–420
Abhilash PC, Dubey RK, Tripathi V, Srivastava P, Verma JP, Singh HB (2013a) Remediation and management of POPs-contaminated soils in a warming climate: challenges and perspectives. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:5879–5885
Abhilash PC, Singh B, Srivastava P, Schaeffer A, Singh N (2013b) Remediation of lindane by Jatropha Curcas L: utilization of multipurpose species for rhizoremediation. Biomass Bioenergy 51:189–193
Álvareza A, Yañez ML, Benimeli CS, Amoroso MJ (2012) Maize plants (Zea mays) root exudates enhance lindane removal by native Streptomyces strains. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 66:14–18
Anawar HM, Freitas MC, Canha N, Santa Regina I (2011) Arsenic, antimony, and other trace element contamination in a mine tailings affected area and uptake by tolerant plant species. Environ Geochem Health 33:353–362
Anderson K (2010) Globalization’s effects on world agricultural trade, 1960–2050. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 365:3007–3021
Banwart S (2011) Save our soils. Nature 474:151–152
Bauddh K, Singh RP (2012) Growth, tolerance efficiency and phytoremediation potential of Ricinus communis (L.) and Brassica juncea (L.) in salinity and drought affected cadmium contaminated soil. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 85:13–22
Beilstein MA, Whanger PD, Yang GQ (1991) Chemical forms of selenium in corn and rice grown in a high selenium area of China. Biomed Environ Sci 4:392–398
Bonanno G, Cirelli GL, Toscano A, Giudice RL, Pavone P (2013) Heavy metal content in ash of energy crops growing in sewage-contaminated natural wetlands: potential applications in agriculture and forestry? Sci Total Environ 452–453:349–354
Borland AM, Griffiths H, Hartwell J, Smith JA (2009) Exploiting the potential of plants with crassulacean acid metabolism for bioenergy production on marginal lands. J Exp Bot 60:2879–2896
Cai X, Zhang X, Wang D (2011) Land availability for biofuel production. Environ Sci Technol 45:334–339
Castillo OS, Dasgupta-Schubert N, Alvarado CJ, Zaragoza EM, Villegas HJ (2011) The effect of the symbiosis between Tagetes erecta L. (marigold) and Glomus intraradices in the uptake of copper(II) and its implications for phytoremediation. Nat Biotechnol 29:156–164
Chatterjee S, Singh L (2012) A study on the waste metal remediation using floriculture at East Calcutta Wetlands, a Ramsar site in India. Environ Monit Assess 184:5139–5150
Chen BC, Lai HY, Lee DY, Juang KW (2011) Using chemical fractionation to evaluate the phytoextraction of cadmium by switchgrass from Cd-contaminated soils. Ecotoxicology 20:409–418
Dary M, Chamber-Pérez MA, Palomares AJ, Pajuelo E (2010) “In situ” phytostabilisation of heavy metal polluted soils using Lupinus luteus inoculated with metal resistant plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria. J Hazard Mater 177:323–330
de Abreu CA, Coscione AR, Pires AM, Paz-Ferreiro J (2012) Phytoremediation of a soil contaminated by heavy metals and boron using castor oil plants and organic matter amendments. J Geochem Explor 123:3–7
Delucchi M (2006) Life cycle analyses of biofuels. Draft report, Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis. http://www.its.ucdavis.edu/publications/2006/UCD-ITS-RR-06-08.pdf
Doty SL, Oakley B, Xin G (2009) Diazotrophic endophytes of native black cottonwood and willow. Symbiosis 47:23–33
Dubey RK, Tripathi V, Singh N, Abhilash PC (2014) Phytoextraction of lindane by Spinacia oleracia L. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 109:22–26
Dubey PK, Singh GS, Abhilash PC (2016) Agriculture in a changing climate. J Clean Prod. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.067
Dziubanek G, Piekut A, Rusin M, Baranowska R, Hajok I (2015) Contamination of food crops grown on soils with elevated heavy metals content. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 118:183–189
Edrisi SA, Abhilash PC (2016) Exploring marginal and degraded lands for biomass and bioenergy production: an Indian scenario. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 54:1537–1551
Edrisi SA, Dubey RK, Tripathi V et al (2015) Jatropha curcas L.: a crucified plant waiting for resurgence. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 41:855–862
El-Temsah YS (2013) Effects of nano-sized zero-valent iron (nZVI) on DDT degradation in soil and its toxicity to collembola and ostracods. Chemosphere 92:131–137
Fairley P (2011) Next generation biofuels. Nat Outlook Biofuel 474:2–5
Foley JA, Ramankutty N, Brauman KA et al (2011) Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 478:337–342
Gao X, Lu X, Wu M, Zhang H, Pan R, Tian J, Li S, Liao H (2012) Co-inoculation with rhizobia and AMF inhibited soybean red crown rot: from field study to plant defense-related gene expression analysis. PLoS ONE 7:e33977
Garnett T, Appleby MC, Balmford A et al (2013) Sustainable intensification in agriculture: premises and policies. Science 341:33–34
Germaine KJ, Keogh E, Ryan D, Dowling DN (2009) Bacterial endophyte-mediated naphthalene phytoprotection and phytoremediation. FEMS Microbiol Lett 296:226–234
Gilbert N (2013) A hard look at GM crops. Nature 497:24–26
Godfray HCJ, Garnett T (2014) Food security and sustainable intensification. Philos Trans R Soc B 369:1471–2970
Godfray HCJ, Beddington JR, Crute IR et al (2010) Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science 327:812–818
González-Chávez MDC, Carrillo-González R (2013) Tolerance of Chrysantemum maximum to heavy metals: the potential for its use in the revegetation of tailings heaps. J Environ Sci 25:367–375
Guo J, Feng R, Ding Y, Wang R (2014) Applying carbon dioxide, plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium and EDTA can enhance the phytoremediation efficiency of ryegrass in a soil polluted with zinc, arsenic, cadmium and lead. J Environ Manag 141C:1–8
Houben D, Evrard L, Sonnet P (2013) Beneficial effects of biochar application to contaminated soils on the bioavailability of Cd, Pb and Zn and the biomass production of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). Biomass Bioenergy 57:196–204
Huang H, Yu N, Wang L (2011) The phytoremediation potential of bioenergy crop Ricinus communis for DDTs and cadmium co-contaminated soil. Bioresour Technol 102:11034–11038
Hur M, Kim Y, Song HR, Kim JM, Im Choi Y, Yi H (2011) Effect of genetically modified Poplars on soil microbial communities during the phytoremediation of waste mine tailings. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:7611–7619
Ilbas AI, Yilmaz S, Akbulut M, Bogdevich O (2012) Uptake and distribution of selenium, nitrogen and sulfur in three Barley cultivars subjected to selenium applications. J Plant Nutr 35:442–452
Irshad M, Ahmad S, Pervez A, Inoue M (2014) Phytoaccumulation of heavy metals in natural plants thriving on wastewater effluent at Hattar industrial estate, Pakistan. Int J Phytoremediat 17:154–158
Ismail A, Riaz M, Akhtar S, Ismail T, Amir M, Zafar-ul-Hye M (2014) Heavy metals in vegetables and respective soils irrigated by canal, municipal waste and tube well water. Food Addit Contam Part B 7:213–219
Jacobsen SE, Sørensen M, Pedersen SM, Weiner J (2013) Feeding the world: genetically modified crops versus agricultural biodiversity. Agron Sustain Dev 33:651–662
Jamil S, Abhilash PC, Singh N, Sharma PN (2009) Jatropha curcas: a potential crop for phytoremediation of coal fly ash. J Hazard Mater 172:269–275
Junttila S, Rudd S (2012) Characterization of a transcriptome from a non-model organism, Cladonia rangiferina, the grey reindeer lichen, using high-throughput next generation sequencing and EST sequence data. BMC Genom 13:575
Juwarkar AA, Yadav SK, Kumar P, Singh SK (2008) Effect of biosludge and biofertilizer amendment on growth of Jatropha curcas in heavy metal contaminated soils. Environ Monit Assess 145:7–15
Karigar CS, Rao SS (2011) Role of microbial enzymes in the bioremediation of pollutants: a review. Enzyme Res. doi:10.4061/2011/805187
Karn B, Kuiken T, Otto M (2009) Nanotechnology and in situ remediation: a review of the benefits and potential risks. Environ Health Perspect 117:1823–1831
Kashem MA et al (2010) Effect of lherzolite on chemical fractions of Cd and Zn and their uptake by plants in contaminated soil. Water Air Soil Pollut 207:241–251
Khan S, Rehman S, Khan AZ, Khan MA, Shah MT (2010) Soil and vegetables enrichment with heavy metals from geological sources in Gilgit, northern Pakistan. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 73:1820–1827
Kline KL, Coleman MD (2010) Woody energy crops in the southeastern United States: two centuries of practitioner experience. Biomass Bioenergy 34:1655–1666
Köhler HR, Triebskorn R (2013) Wildlife ecotoxicology of pesticides: can we track effects to the population level and beyond? Science 341:759–765
Kříbek B, Majer V, Knésl I, Nyambe I, Mihaljevič M, Ettler V, Sracek O (2014) Concentrations of arsenic, copper, cobalt, lead and zinc in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) growing on uncontaminated and contaminated soils of the Zambian Copperbelt. J Afr Earth Sci 99:713–723
Kumar BM (2013) Mining waste contaminated lands: an uphill battle for improving crop productivity. J Degrad Min Land Manag 1:43–50
Lal K, Minhas PS, Chaturvedi RK, Yadav RK (2008) Extraction of cadmium and tolerance of three annual cut flowers on Cd-contaminated soils. Bioresour Technol 99:1006–1011
Lambin EF, Meyfrodt P (2011) Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:3465–3472
Ling-Zhi L et al (2011) Growth, cadmium accumulation and physiology of marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) as affected by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Pedosphere 21:319–327
Liu R, Zhao D (2013) Synthesis and characterization of a new class of stabilized apatite nanoparticles and applying the particles to in situ Pb immobilization in a fire-range soil. Chemosphere 91:594–601
Machado A, Magalhães C, Mucha AP, Almeida CM, Bordalo AA (2012) Microbial communities within saltmarsh sediments: composition, abundance and pollution constraints. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 99:145–152
Madejón P, Barba-Brioso C, Lepp NW, Fernández-Caliani JC (2011) Traditional agricultural practices enable sustainable remediation of highly polluted soils in Southern Spain for cultivation of food crops. J Environ Manag 92:1828–1836
Mallampati SR, Mitoma Y, Okuda T, Sakita S, Kakeda M (2013) Total immobilization of soil heavy metals with nano-Fe/Ca/CaO dispersion mixtures. Environ Chem Lett 11:119–125
Marchal G, Smith KE, Mayer P, de Jonge LW, Karlson UG (2014) Impact of soil amendments and the plant rhizosphere on PAH behaviour in soil. Environ Pollut 188:124–131
Meers E, Van Slycken S, Adriaensen K et al (2010) The use of bio-energy crops (Zea mays) for “phytoattenuation” of heavy metals on moderately contaminated soils: a field experiment. Chemosphere 78:35–41
Meister R, Rajani MS, Ruzicka D, Schachtman DP (2014) Challenges of modifying root traits in crops for agriculture. Trends Plant Sci 19:779–788
Montanarella L, Vargas R (2012) Global governance of soil resources as a necessary condition for sustainable development. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 4:559–564
Murakami M, Ae N, Ishikawa S (2007) Phytoextraction of cadmium by rice (Oryza sativa L.), soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), and maize (Zea mays L.). Environ Pollut 145:96–103
Myers SS, Zanobetti A, Kloog I et al (2014) Increasing CO2 threatens human nutrition. Nature 510:139–142
Olivares AR, Carrillo-González R, González-Chávez MD, Hernández RM (2013) Potential of castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) for phytoremediation of mine tailings and oil production. J Environ Manag 114:316–323
Pavel PB, Puschenreiter M, Wenzel WW, Diacu E, Barbu CH (2014) Aided phytostabilization using Miscanthus sinensis × giganteus on heavy metal-contaminated soils. Sci Total Environ 479–480:125–131
Popp J, Pető K, Nagy J (2013) Pesticide productivity and food security. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 33:243–255
Rao MA, Scelza R, Scotti R, Gianfreda L (2010) Role of enzymes in the remediation of polluted environments. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 10:333–353
Rastogi A, Mishra BK, Singh M, Mishra R, Shukla S (2014) Role of micronutrients on quantitative traits and prospects of its accumulation in linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.). Arch Agron Soil Sci 60:1389–1409
Ravikumar M, Sarita P, Naga Raju GJ, Bhuloka Reddy S (2013) Trace element accumulation in the leaves of Azadirachta indica and Pongamia glabra collected from different environmental sites. J Environ Res Dev 7:1209–1215
Rayman MP (2008) Food-chain selenium and human health: emphasis on intake. Br J Nutr 100:254–268
Rayman MP, Infante HG, Sargent M (2008) Food-chain selenium and human health: spotlight on speciation. Br J Nutr 100:238–253
Rockström J, Steffen W, Noone K et al (2009) A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461:472–475
Ronald P (2011) Plant genetics, sustainable agriculture and global food security. Genetics 188:111–120
Ruttens A, Boulet J, Weyens N (2011) Short rotation coppice culture of willows and poplars as energy crops on metal contaminated agricultural soils. Int J Phytoremediat 13:94–207
Schmidt W (2014) Root systems biology. Front Plant Sci 5:1–2
Segura A, Ramos JL (2013) Plant–bacteria interactions in the removal of pollutants. Curr Opin Biotechnol 24:467–473
Singh R, Misra V, Singh RP (2012) Removal of Cr(VI) by nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) from soil contaminated with tannery wastes. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 88:210–214
Sipos G, Solti A, Czech V, Vashegyi I, Tóth B, Cseh E, Fodor F (2013) Heavy metal accumulation and tolerance of energy grass (Elymus elongatus subsp. ponticus cv. Szarvasi-1) grown in hydroponic culture. Plant Physiol Biochem 68:96–103
Solís-Domínguez FA, Valentín-Vargas A, Chorover J, Maier RM (2011) Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on plant biomass and the rhizosphere microbial community structure of mesquite grown in acidic lead/zinc mine tailings. Sci Total Environ 409:1009–1016
Stadlober M, Sager M, Irgolic KJ (2001) Effects of selenate supplemented fertilization on the selenium level of cereals-identification and quantification of selenium compounds by HPLC–ICP-MS. Food Chem 73:357–366
Stasinos S, Zabetakis I (2013) The uptake of nickel and chromium from irrigation water by potatoes, carrots and onions. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 91:122–128
Tang Y, Xie JS, Geng S (2010) Marginal land-based biomass energy production in China. J Integr Plant Biol 52:112–121
Técher D, Laval-Gilly P, Henry S et al (2011) Contribution of Miscanthus x giganteus root exudates to the biostimulation of PAH degradation: an in vitro study. Sci Total Environ 409:4489–4495
Tian YL, Zhang HY, Guo W, Wei XF (2014) Morphological responses, biomass yield and bioenergy potential of sweet sorghum cultivated in cadmium- contaminated soil for biofuel. Int J Green Energy 12:577–584
Tripathi P, Singh PC, Mishra A, Chauhan PS, Dwivedi S, Bais RT, Tripathi RD (2013) Trichoderma: a potential bioremediator for environmental cleanup. Clean Technol Environ Policy 15:541–550
Tripathi V, Dubey RK, Edrisi SA, Narain K, Singh HB, Singh N, Abhilash PC (2014a) Towards the ecological profiling of a pesticide contaminated soil site for remediation and management. Ecol Eng 71:318–325
Tripathi V, Dubey RK, Singh N, Singh HB, Abhilash PC (2014b) Is Vigna radiata is suitable for cropping in lindane contaminated soil? Ecol Eng 73:219–223
Tripathi V, Fraceto LF, Abhilash PC (2015a) Sustainable clean-up technologies for soils contaminated with multiple pollutants: plant–microbe–pollutant and climate nexus. Ecol Eng 82:330–335
Tripathi V, Abhilash PC, Singh HB, Patra DD, Singh N (2015b) Effect of temperature variation on lindane dissipation and microbial activity in soils. Ecol Eng 79:54–59
Vamerali T, Bandiera M, Lucchini P, Dickinson NM, Mosca G (2014) Long-term phytomanagement of metal-contaminated land with field crops: integrated remediation and biofortification. Eur J Agron 53:56–66
Van Slycken S, Witters N, Meers E et al (2013) Safe use of metal-contaminated agricultural land by cultivation of energy maize (Zea mays). Environ Pollut 178:375–380
Vandenhove H, Hees MV (2005) Fibre crops as alternative land use for radioactively contaminated arable land. J Environ Radioact 81:131–141
Villordon AQ, Ginzberg I, Firon N (2014) Root architecture and root and tuber crop productivity. Trends Plant Sci 19:419–425
Vishnoi SR, Srivastava PN (2008) Phytoremediation-green for environmental clean. In: The 12th world lake conference, pp 1016–1021
Wang XF, Zhou QX (2005) Ecotoxicological effects of cadmium on three ornamental plants. Chemosphere 60:16–21
Wang GD, Li QJ, Luo B, Chen XY (2004) Ex planta phytoremediation of trichlorophenol and phenolic allelochemicals via an engineered secretory laccase. Nat Biotechnol 22:893–897
Warren GP, Alloway BJ, Lepp NW, Singh B, Bochereau FJ, Penny C (2003) Field trials to assess the uptake of arsenic by vegetables from contaminated soils and soil remediation with iron oxides. Sci Total Environ 311:19–33
Weyens N, van der Lelie D, Taghavi S, Newman L, Vangronsveld J (2009) Exploiting plant microbe partnerships to improve biomass production and remediation. Trend Biotechnol 27:591–598
Weyens N, Beckers B, Schellingen K (2013) The potential of the Ni-resistant TCE-degrading Pseudomonas putida W619-TCE to reduce phytotoxicity and improve phytoremediation efficiency of poplar cuttings on a Ni-TCE co-contamination. Int J Phytoremediat 17:40–48
Williams PN, Lombi E, Sun GX (2009) Selenium characterization in the global rice supply chain. Environ Sci Technol 43:6024–6030
Willscher S, Mirgorodsky D, Jablonski L (2013) Field scale phytoremediation experiments on a heavy metal and uranium contaminated site, and further utilization of the plant residues. Hydrometallurgy 131–132:46–53
Ye-Tao TA, Teng-Hao-Bo DE, Qi-Hang WU (2012) Designing cropping systems for metal-contaminated sites: a review. Pedosphere 22:470–488
Yu L, Zhu J, Huang Q, Su D, Jiang R, Li H (2014) Application of a rotation system to oilseed rape and rice fields in Cd-contaminated agricultural land to ensure food safety. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 108:287–293
Zaidi S, Usmani S, Singh BR, Musarrat J (2006) Significance of Bacillus subtilis strain SJ-101 as a bioinoculant for concurrent plant growth promotion and nickel accumulation in Brassica juncea. Chemosphere 64:991–997
Zhang WX (2003) Nanoscale iron particles for environmental remediation: an overview. J Nanoparticle Res 5:323–332
Zhao FJ, McGrath SP (2009) Biofortification and phytoremediation. Curr Opin Plant Biol 12:373–380
Zhu YG, Pilon-Smits EA, Zhao FJ, Williams PN, Meharg AA (2009) Selenium in higher plants: understanding mechanisms for biofortification and phytoremediation. Trend Plant Sci 14:436–442
Zhuang P, Shu W, Li Z, Liao B, Li J, Shao J (2009) Removal of metals by sorghum plants from contaminated land. J Environ Sci 21:1432–1437
Acknowledgments
We sincerely apologize to all authors those work could not be cited due to space limit. PCA is thankful to UGC, CSIR, INSA and DST for financial support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors do not have any conflict of interest.
Additional information
P. C. Abhilash, Vishal Tripathi, Sheikh Adil Edrisi and Rama Kant Dubey have contributed equally to this work.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Abhilash, P.C., Tripathi, V., Edrisi, S.A. et al. Sustainability of crop production from polluted lands. Energ. Ecol. Environ. 1, 54–65 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-016-0007-x
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-016-0007-x