Introduction

The designation of heritage stones as Global Heritage Stone Resource (GHSR) by the International Union of Geological Sciences-International Commission on Geoheritage (IUGS-ICG) is a step forward where national heritage stones with cultural, historical and wide-ranging usage can be identified and accorded international/global status. This novel idea of the International Union of Geological Sciences-Heritage Stones Subcommission (IUGS-HSS) allows all the nations with a record of historical stone-built monuments to come forward and document the geological attributes of their national heritage stones and their cultural connect (Pereira et al. 2015; Kaur et al. 2021a). The GHSR designation can be granted only after the stone fulfils the requisite conditions mentioned in the Terms of Reference (ToR) of the Heritage Stone Subcommission (https://globalheritagestone.com/other-projects/ghsr/regulations/; Pereira et al. 2015; Kaur et al. 2021a and references cited therein). European nations have been quick to identify such stones and have recommended several significant stones for GHSR designation, in stark contrast to African, Asian, Oceanian, North and South American nations, which are under-represented on the GHSR world map (refer Fig. 1.3 in Kaur et al. 2020a; Cardenes and Kaur 2021; Kaur and Cardenes 2021; Kaur et al. 2021a; http://globalheritagestone.com/other-projects/ghsr/designations/). Recent studies have highlighted several iconic stones of India with potential for the GHSR designation (Garg et al. 2019; Kaur et al. 2019a, b; Kaur et al. 2020a, b, c, d; Sreejith et al. 2021; Kaur et al. 2021b). The Makrana Marble of north-western India has recently been recognised by the IUGS-HSS as the first and only one to date, GHSR from entire South Asia (Garg et al. 2019; Kaur et al. 2020a; http://globalheritagestone.com/other-projects/ghsr/designations/).

Rajnagar Marble deposits occurring around Rajnagar and Kankroli towns in Rajsamand District of south-central Rajasthan represent significant marble deposits from the Aravalli Mountain Belt of India (Fig. 1a, b). The marble has been used for centuries in archaeological monuments, as evident by the eighth-century Eklingji Temple and numerous other temples in Udaipur City in particular and Mewar region in general. Besides temples, embankments and step well construction, the Rajnagar Marble has also been a preferred stone for carving idols of various Hindu deities, including the famous twelfth-century Palasma (the seven-horse drawn sun chariot idol with nine planets revolving around it). The Rajnagar Marble, on account of its pure white colour, was regarded as Dev-Patthar (meaning God’s stone) as per Hindu cultural beliefs and was exclusively used in temples for carving idols of deities. Therefore, it was traditionally prohibited in flooring and private dwellings. However, it was indirectly used as ground-in-hand-mill and muslin cloth–sieved, marble-lime paste plastering (~ 50 µm size) to give the walls, pillars, lanterns, or even floors in residential buildings the ‘marble-finish’, through a unique heritage technique, locally called, Ghutai, typical of the erstwhile Rajputana (Ranawat 2016a, b). Most palaces and Havelies (mansions) in the Mewar region (the present-day Udaipur, Bhilwara, Chittaurgarh and Rajnagar; Fig. 1a) lying in the south-central part of Rajasthan State in NW India were built partly using the Rajnagar Marble and Ghutai plastering on the lime-sand-quartzite masonry works.

Fig. 1
figure 1

a Geological map of the Aravalli Mountain Belt (Heron 1953; Kaur et al. 2021b). b Regional geological map showing marble occurrence and quarry sites in and around Rajnagar (compiled from Heron 1953; Mohanty and Guha 1995; Ahmed and Kumar 2016, unpublished report; Ahmad et al. 2018). The Mewar region on the map (not to scale) is represented by a dotted outline comprising present-day Bhilwara, Chittaurgarh, Kumbhalgarh and Udaipur districts of Rajasthan

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The objective of this paper is to bring to fore the Rajnagar Marble of India, which has been used in scores of historical monuments in the Mewar region of Rajasthan. This heritage marble was extensively used for Ghutai (a unique heritage marble-lime paste preparation and plastering technique) in historical monuments, which needs promotion and publicity.

Geological Setting

The Aravalli–Bundelkhand Craton represents the northernmost of several Archaean–Paleoproterozoic cratonic regions and enclosing mobile belts in Peninsular India that together constitute the Indian Shield (Meert and Pandit 2015 and references therein). Its northwestern domain (also called Aravalli Craton) comprises an Archaean basement, named Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) (Gupta 1934; Heron 1953), over which, Proterozoic supracrustal rocks of Aravalli and Delhi supergroups [Aravalli Delhi Fold Belt (ADFB)] were deposited (Fig. 1a; Gupta et al. 1997; Sinha-Roy et al. 1998; Roy and Jakhar 2002). The BGC was subdivided by Gupta (1934) into two geographic domains, BGC I (amphibolite facies) in the east and BGC II (granulite facies) in the west, based on differences in litho-assemblage, grade of metamorphism and basement–cover relationships. These are separated by the NE–SW-trending Banas Dislocation Zone (Fig. 1b; Sinha-Roy et al. 1998). Gupta et al. (1997) regrouped the basement rocks of the Aravalli Mountain Region into Bhilwara Supergroup (BSG) that also includes a notable Paleoproterozoic component. The BSG has further been subdivided into Mangalwar Complex (predominantly amphibolite facies), Sandmata Complex (granulite facies) and Hindoli Group (low-grade metapelites, metapsammites and volcanics).

The focus of the present study is the Rajnagar Marble, which has been used in numerous monuments of Mewar Region. This marble is exposed in the Kankroli–Rajnagar area in southern Rajasthan (Fig. 1a, b). These predominantly calcareous facies rocks were earlier classified by Heron (1953) as the ‘Raialo series’, a chronostratigraphic unit, younger than Aravalli and older than Delhi Supergroup (erstwhile ‘systems’). Although their basement character was highlighted by several workers (Ghosh and Naha 1962; Naha and Halyburton, 1974a, 1974b; Mohanty and Guha 1990; 1995), these rocks were included in the ambit of Aravalli Supergroup by Gupta et al. (1997) who described them as part of Kankroli and Dovda/Davura groups. In the current understanding, these ‘calcareous facies’ rocks in Kankroli–Rajnagar area are considered a part of the Mangalwar Complex (basement) (Fig. 1b; Table 1; see also Sinha-Roy et al. 1998; Ahmed and Kumar 2016, unpublished report; Ahmad et al. 2018). The Mangalwar Complex in this region is further subdivided into Asan Group (bimodal gneiss), Sawadari Group (mafic–ultramafic rocks, chert, basic tuffs and carbonates) and Tanwan Group (quartzite, mica schist, amphibolite and carbonates) (Fig. 1b; Table 1; see also Sinha-Roy et al. 1998). The Tanwan Group marble and calc gneisses of variable width display complex outcrop patterns in this region due to ductile deformation and fold interference (Sinha-Roy et al. 1998). The marble unit is best developed about 10 km NW of Rajnagar Town and also forms the main repository of Rajnagar Marble where it is excavated from several open quarries (Fig. 1b). The location of some prominent quarries is indicated in Fig. 1b.

Table 1 Stratigraphic succession around Rajsamand District
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Intrusive phases in the area include variably altered and metamorphosed granite, granodiorite and trondhjemite. A granite–granodiorite pluton (Ran Igneous Complex; see Guha and Bhattacharya 1995) intrudes at the contact between Sawadari and Tanwan groups while Anjana Granite (gneiss), a post-Aravalli granitic pluton, represents the most prominent intrusive event in the region. Besides, a norite dyke is also exposed near Deogarh Town (Guha and Bhattacharya 1995). The marble deposits do not show any contact relationship with intrusive rocks.

Commercial Varieties of Rajnagar Marble

Rajnagar Marble is sold under different commercial/trade names based on the local village names, such as Morwad, Arna, Nijharna, Dharmeta and Jhanjhar (Fig. 1b). The Morwad variety is the most popular commercial variety due to its pure white colour. Arna, Nijharna, Dharmeta and Jhanjhar are relatively less common varieties of the Rajnagar Marble that are quarried for local use. These varieties can also be differentiated on the basis of appearance (Table 2; Natani 2002, unpublished report; Agarwal et al. 2020, unpublished 36th IGC field guide). Morwad variety is coarse- to very coarse-grained, pure white, massive marble, devoid of any colouration and banding (Fig. 2a). Arna variety is coarse- to medium-grained with random green patches (Fig. 2b). Nijharna is fine- to medium-grained, foliated marble with centimetric-scale light to dark brown bands (Fig. 2c). Jhanjhar is medium- to coarse-grained, white coloured with light grey, discontinuous lenses (Fig. 2d). Dharmeta, another coarse-grained white variety, is characterised by yellow and green spots (Fig. 2e). The Rajnagar Marble is dominantly composed of calcite and dolomite and contains an accessory amount of clinopyroxene, tremolite, feldspar, biotite, sphene and magnetite that impart brown, green, yellow and grey colours to the rock (Basu and Arora 1968, unpublished report; Ahmed and Kumar 2016, unpublished report).

Table 2 A summary of macroscopic characteristics of the five trade varieties of Rajnagar Marble (source: Natani 2002, unpublished report)
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Fig. 2
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Hand specimen photographs of different varieties of Rajnagar Marble. a Morwad. b Arna. c Nijharna. d Jhanjhar. e Dharmeta

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Petrography, Physico-mechanical and Geochemical Characteristics of Rajnagar Marble

Five varieties of Rajnagar Marble, viz. Morwad, Arna, Nijharna, Dharmeta and Jhanjhar, were petrographically examined at the Department of Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh using Carl Zeiss AXIO Imager and A2m microscope. The dolomite and calcite were distinguished using the Alizarin Red S staining method (Dickson 1965; 1966; Fig. 3a). The Morwad variety is coarse- to very coarse-grained dolomitic marble, displaying granoblastic texture. Mineralogically, the rock is composed of calcite and dolomite as the dominant carbonate phases and accessory (< 1 vol. %) quartz and amphibole (Fig. 3a, b). The other varieties of Rajnagar Marble such as Arna, Nijharna, Dharmeta and Jhanjhar are fine- to coarse-grained dolomitic marble, with subordinate amounts of quartz, biotite and amphibole (Fig. 3c, d). Arna variety contains dolomite and calcite with subordinate amphibole (Fig. 3c). The Nijharna variety mainly comprises dolomite and calcite with minor amounts of biotite, quartz and opaques. The fine biotite grains show preferred alignment and add brown streaks to the rock (Figs. 2c and 3d). Jhanjhar variety is characterised by the presence of dolomite, calcite and quartz imparting light colour to the vitreous lenses in the rock. Dharmeta variety contains dolomite and calcite and minor amounts of amphibole, quartz and opaque minerals.

Fig. 3
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Photomicrographs of different varieties of Rajnagar Marble. a Stained thin section of Morwad under plane-polarised light (PPL). b Morwad under PPL. c Arna under crossed-polarised light (XPL). d Nijharna under PPL. Abbreviations: Dol dolomite, Cal calcite, Amp amphibole, Qz quartz, Bi biotite, Cb carbonates, Opq opaques

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Physico-mechanical properties of the Morwad variety of Rajnagar Marble are given in Table 3 (source: Annon 2011). The geochemical analyses of Morwad, Dharmeta and Nijharna varieties of Rajnagar Marble are given in Table 4 (person. comm.; Natani 2002, unpublished report).

Table 3 Physico-mechanical properties of Morwad variety of Rajnagar Marble
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Table 4 Chemical composition of Morwad, Dharmeta and Nijharna varieties of Rajnagar Marble
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Rajnagar Marble Mining and Processing

Rajnagar region of Rajasthan State is one of the most important marble repositories as well as marble-producing, processing and exporting regions in India (Ahmed and Kumar 2016, unpublished report; Ranawat 2016a; Agarwal et al. 2020, unpublished 36th IGC field guide). The marble occurrences of Morwad, Nijharna, Dharmeta, Arna, Jhanjhar, Agaria, Amet, Kelwa, Kotri, Morchana, Talai, Omthi, Khera, Kesarpura, Pipali, Umraya, Prempura, Ghati and Koyal areas of Rajsamand District collectively constitute the Rajnagar Marble deposit (Fig. 1b; Agarwal 1979; Natani 2002, unpublished report; Ahmed and Kumar 2016, unpublished report; http://ibm.nic.in/writereaddata/files/01102018101102Marble%202016%20(Advance%20Release).pdf). The Morwad variety is extensively quarried in comparison to other varieties and the most preferred one in the contemporary construction industry. RK Marbles is the biggest marble mining and supplier firm that operates several fully mechanised marble quarries and block processing units in Rajnagar (person. comm.). There are many small-scale local mining units operational in Rajnagar area which are semi-mechanised and even use manual methods of quarrying. Large-scale quarrying of the Morwad (white) variety of Rajnagar Marble is currently being carried out at the Morward Marble Mines of RK Marble Pvt. Ltd. in Morwad-Rajsamand mining division in Rajasthan (Fig. 4a, b). The marble block mining is done vertically by the benching method (bench width > bench height) after the removal of overburden by heavy earth-moving machinery or by drilling holes using jackhammers and slim drill machines (http://ibm.nic.in/writereaddata/files/01102018101102Marble%202016%20(Advance%20Release).pdf; Agarwal et al. 2020, unpublished 36th IGC field guide). The bench wall is usually formed by vertical drill holes, subsequently cut by diamond wire saw machines to obtain marble blocks of the desired size. The excavated marble blocks are loaded onto trucks with the help of lifting cranes and transported to the block processing units. The marble blocks are unloaded at the processing unit of the marble tile plant using a gantry crane (Fig. 5a). Depending on the overall dimensions, the marble blocks are sliced into slabs and tiles of variable size using block cutting machines, multi-wire cutting machines and circular saws (Fig. 5b–d). The multi-wire cutter comprises diamond wires which slice the marble block vertically into several identical size slabs in one go (Fig. 5c). The block cutter comprises a single diamond saw wire which is used to cut a highly irregular marble block into strips that are subsequently dressed into desired size slabs (Fig. 5b; http://ibm.nic.in/writereaddata/files/01102018101102Marble%202016%20(Advance%20Release).pdf; Agarwal et al. 2020, unpublished 36th IGC field guide). After processing, marble slabs are transported to the production unit for final polishing and finishing. The polished slabs are sold commercially and used for cladding and flooring. The Rajnagar Marble is a popular building material and also utilised for preparing Ghutai (Basu and Arora 1966, unpublished report; Ranawat 2016b).

Fig. 4
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a Panoramic view of Morward Marble Mines of RK Marble Pvt. Ltd. in Rajsamand District of Rajasthan. b Close-up view of bench wall in the same mine (photos by Sanchit Garg)

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Fig. 5
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Marble processing unit of RK Marble Pvt. Ltd. a Gantry crane used to unload marble block from the truck. b Block cutting machine. c Multi-wire cutting machine. d Circular saw used to cut the blocks of marble into slabs and tiles of variable sizes (photos by Sanchit Garg and Amritpaul Singh)

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Ghutai: a Unique Heritage Marble-Lime Paste Preparation and Plastering Technique Used in Historical Monuments

Ghutai is a traditional and unique technique of preparing plastering material in Udaipur and surrounding regions, usually applied to interior and exterior surfaces of heritage monuments or buildings (Ranawat 2016b; http://toi.in/jlpyrY/a31ga8). It includes plastering of the building surfaces with smooth paste (~ 50 µm size) obtained by grinding a mixture comprising one part of slacked lime (burnt lime mixed with water) and three parts of sand-sized ground marble (Ranawat 2016b). The sand-sized ground marble is prepared from hand-sorted stain-free white Rajnagar Marble through manual sizing and sieving methods to obtain a marble powder of ~ 0.5 to 0.7 mm diameter. This ground marble is then mixed with raw lime while pouring water and allowed to stale for some days. Thereafter, a smooth paste is obtained by grinding the mixture manually in millstones (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EHADOgYCjxo). Ghutai plastering is applied on the surfaces which have been previously plastered with a burnt lime-river sand or cement-river sand mortar. Prior to 1960s, the burnt lime was conventionally prepared by burning limestone (CaCO3) in kilns at ~ 825 °C. The conventional process of Ghutai preparation is time-consuming and cumbersome, and the process of treating the lime could take up to 2 years. In the current times, the slaking of lime is done for a shorter period. The present process of Ghutai preparation involves the use of portland cement in place of burnt lime (Ranawat 2016b). Nowadays, electrically operated stone mills are available and the final marble-lime paste is produced quickly in comparison to the traditional hand-operated mills. The Ghutai is usually applied in three consequent coatings. The first coating is done and allowed to settle for any kind of shrinkage due to the prevailing temperature. Subsequently, the second and third coating are applied after a gap of at least 1 month. Thereafter, the surface is polished with a fine-mesh polishing stone. The finish is given by applying coconut oil using a cloth to give a glossy marble-like appearance to the surface (http://toi.in/jlpyrY/a31ga8; Ranawat 2016b). This polish allows the coating to sustain for centuries with the least maintenance. Sometimes, the Ghutai paste is mixed with manually cleaned seashell powder (‘mother of pearl’) that gives the surface pearly lustre. At times, yellow ochre is a preferred addition to the Ghutai that imparts the paste a creamy yellow hue and enhances its aesthetic appeal. The technique of Ghutai becomes more relevant in the current times in utilising the marble waste in preparing sand-sized ground marble, thus an eco-friendly activity of reuse of marble waste (http://toi.in/jlpyrY/a31ga8).

The Ghutai-plastered surfaces were traditionally painted with motifs of dancing peacocks and various floral designs and, at times, with inlaid coloured glass pieces (Fig. 6a–c; Ranawat 2016b). The Ghutai plaster on the exterior surfaces and walls tends to develop grey algal patches after many years, which is manually scrubbed clean to maintain it.

Fig. 6
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a, b The coloured glasswork and floral paintings and geometric designs on the Ghutai base adorning the walls and arches of the Sheesh Mahal. c Close-up view of peacock embellished with the mirror mosaic work on the Ghutai base in the Mor Chowk preserved in glass case, City Palace Complex, Udaipur (photos by Gurmeet Kaur)

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Rajnagar Marble and Ghutai in Heritage Monuments

The architectural monuments of the Mewar region showcase the versatile use of the Rajnagar Marble that ranges from carved idols of deities, sculptures, flooring and the exquisite technique of Ghutai plastering, a secondary product of Rajnagar Marble. The earliest use of Rajnagar Marble can be traced to 734 AD (Erskine 1908) when it was used exclusively for carving idols of Hindu deities. Due to its pure white colour, it was considered Dev-Patthar and, therefore, was not used in flooring and private human dwellings (Ranawat 2016a, b). From the mid-sixteenth century onwards, the wider use of Rajnagar Marble in the carvings, pillars and flooring is seen in the heritage monuments. The sculptures of gods and goddesses in the eighth-century Eklingji Temple can be cited as the oldest carvings done in Rajnagar Marble (Sarda 1932). The remains of the sculptures of Hindu deities (eighth to sixteenth century), carved in the Rajnagar Marble, from the Eklingji Temple Complex are now displayed at the City Palace Complex, Udaipur (Fig. 7a). The following historical excerpt highlights the use of marble in the Eklingji Temple:

'Eklingji and Nagda—A shrine sacred to Mahadev…14 miles north of Oodeypore. The fane is of white marble and ample dimensions, under an open vaulted temple supported by columns, and fronting the four-faced divinity is the brazen bull, Nanda of natural size…' (Mehta 1888, p. 35)

Fig. 7
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a Close-up view of Nartaki (Dancing Surasundari/Lady 1100–1200 C.E.), displayed at the City Palace Museum, Udaipur. b Rajnagar Marble–carved Varaha (incarnation of Lord Vishnu) at Kumbhshyam Temple, Chittaurgarh Fort, which was later vandalised by the Mughals (photos by Parminder Kaur and Jaspreet Saini). c Rajnagar Marble–carved idols of Lord Krishna and Meera Bai placed in the Kumbhshyam Temple at Chittaurgarh Fort (photo by Gurmeet Kaur)

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The deity sculptures dedicated to the Lord Vishnu in the Kumbhshyam Temple of Chittaurgarh Fort were carved from Rajnagar Marble under the patronage of Rana Kumbha during the fifteenth century (Fig. 7b, c). The Rajnagar Marble–carved idols of Lord Krishna and Meera Bai were placed in the Kumbhshyam Temple at Chittaurgarh Fort (Fig. 7c). In the sixteenth century, the capital of Mewar was shifted from Chittaurgarh to Udaipur by Maharana Udai Singh (Shimazaki and Ranawat 2020) and the construction of the new palace, viz. the famous City Palace Complex of Udaipur, was started in 1559 which involved extensive use of Rajnagar Marble. The Rajnagar Marble was used in the idols and sculptures at Ganesh Pol (gateway dedicated to Lord Ganesha), flooring at the Lakshmi Chowk (courtyard dedicated to Goddess Lakshmi; Fig. 8a), Badi Mahal (Great Garden Palace; Fig. 8b), Mor Chowk (Peacock Courtyard) and Chowmukha (open pavilion) in the Udaipur City Palace Complex. A jointless large water tank, carved out of a single marble slab, is placed in the cloisters of Badi Mahal (Fig. 8b, Table 5). The importance and popularity of Rajnagar Marble increased after its use in the stepped embankment and Nau Chauki (pavilions) of the Rajsamand Lake (Fig. 9a, Table 5; Ranawat 2016a, b). There are three pavilions, each consisting of twelve pillars of Rajnagar Marble, with intricate carvings that depict figures of gods and goddesses, animals and floral and geometrical designs, inspired from the Krishna Lila (Fig. 9b, c; Dorje and Dimri 2012). Apart from this, the three marble torans (typical Hindu architectural arched gateways) on the embankment also exhibit exquisite carving and ornamentation. The significance and beauty of the Rajsamand embankment can be appreciated in a historical incident: Aurangzeb, the Mughal Emperor destroyed many temples in Mewar region during late seventeenth century, but on his visit to Rajsamand, he was so mesmerised by the beauty of the Nau Chauki that he ordered no harm be inflicted to this ‘Miracle in Marble’, which represented numerous carved panels of Hindu culture (Shyamaldas 2017).

Fig. 8
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a Use of Rajnagar Marble in the flooring and Ghutai plaster on the walls and the intricately carved brackets in cloisters at Lakshmi Chowk. b Jointless water tub carved out of single marble slab in the courtyard of the Badi Mahal, City Palace Complex, Udaipur (photos by Parminder Kaur and Jaspreet Saini)

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Table 5 List of some significant heritage monuments depicting the extensive use of Rajnagar Marble
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Fig. 9
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a Rajnagar marble used in stepped embankment of Rajsamand Lake. b Intricately carved pillars of the pavilion of Nau Chauki. c Close-up view of one of the carved pillars at Nau Chauki (photos by Parminder Kaur)

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The Rajnagar Marble was also used in the construction of the Moti Mahal, a palace situated on the bank of Fateh Sagar Lake, which is the only palace in Udaipur built entirely using the Rajnagar Marble (Ranawat 2016a, b). A three-storey, Jagdish Temple, the largest Vishnu Temple in Udaipur, possesses eloquent carvings in white Rajnagar Marble (Fig. 10a, b; Purohit 1938; Shimazaki and Ranawat 2020). The exterior walls, ceiling and pillars of the temple are intricately carved with Hindu idols, elephants, floral patterns and other elements of Hindu culture. Two large elephants, carved from marble blocks, are placed on both sides of the stairway at the main entrance of the temple. Apart from this, Rajnagar Marble was used in the flooring and sculptures in the Saheliyon-ki-Badi (Garden of Maidens) in Udaipur, and several components of Jagmandir (Lake Garden Palace) and Jagniwas (now known as Taj Lake Palace Hotel), the two island palaces built in the Lake Pichola during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries (Table 5). There is a row of elephants carved in Rajnagar Marble at the entrance of Jagmandir. The slabs of white Rajnagar Marble were used in the flooring and columns of the Jagniwas. The marble bust of Maharaja Sajjan Singh is placed in the middle of the central chamber of the Sajjangarh Fort (also known as the Monsoon Palace; Fig. 10c). The marble is also used in the flooring of the palace. The capital of the pillars erected in Rajnagar Marble is intricately carved with floral designs (Fig. 10d).

Fig. 10
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a The intricate carvings of Jagdish Temple, Udaipur, constructed in Rajnagar Marble. b Close-up view of carvings on the exterior wall of Jagdish Temple. c Rajnagar Marble bust of Maharana Sajjan Singh. d Floral carvings on the capital of pillars at Sajjangarh Fort, Udaipur (photos by Sanchit Garg)

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Ghutai plastering has been extensively used on the exterior and interior walls of several heritage monuments, namely City Palace Complex, Saheliyon-ki-Badi, Jagmandir, Jagniwas and Sajjangarh Fort. The coloured glasswork, floral paintings, geometric designs and mirror mosaic work done on the Ghutai base adorn the walls and arches of the Sheesh Mahal (Palace of Glass and Mirrors, Fig. 6a, b) and the Mor Chowk (Fig. 6c) in the City Palace Complex, Udaipur. The outer walls of the City Palace Complex, entry gate named Badi Pol (Great Gate), the intricately carved brackets, pillars of the cloisters at Lakshmi Chowk (Fig. 8a) and Badi Mahal are all plastered with Ghutai. The chhatris (domed canopies), fountains, elephants and the walls around the main courtyard of Saheliyon-ki-Badi highlight the use of Ghutai (Fig. 11a, b; Table 5). Jagniwas is entirely plastered with pure white Ghutai, giving it a marble-like finish (Fig. 11c; https://ia802902.us.archive.org/10/items/fortspalaceshave00cent/fortspalaceshave00cent.pdf). The exterior walls of the Sajjangarh Fort were all plastered with Ghutai (Fig. 12). The Rajnagar Marble Ghutai plastering was preferably used in the Badal Mahal (Palace of Clouds) at Kumbhalgarh Fort (Dorje and Dimri 2012) and Fateh Prakash Palace at Chittaurgarh Fort, which are two of the six Hill Forts of Rajasthan, collectively designated as UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Fig. 11
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a, b Ghutai-plastered octagonal chhatris, elephant fountains and the boundary wall in the main courtyard at Saheliyon-ki-Badi (photos by Jaspreet Saini and Parminder Kaur). c In the background of Lake Pichola, Ghutai-plastered City Palace Complex and Jagniwas can be seen (photo by P.S. Ranawat)

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Fig. 12
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Sajjangarh Fort with Ghutai-plastered exterior (photo by P.S. Ranawat)

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Contemporary Usage of Rajnagar Marble

Due to its colour, appealing patterns and aesthetic charm, the Rajnagar Marble is extensively used in contemporary buildings and the handicraft industry (Fig. 13a–d). The white variety is the most favoured for carving idols of deities and sculptures. One such example is the idol of Lord Parshvanath at Chennai that was carved out of a single block of Rajnagar Marble (https://udaipurtimes.com/around-town/rajsamands-marble-to-be-used-for-making-lord-parshvanaths/c74416-w2859-cid136830-s10793.htm). The Rajnagar Marble is commonly used for constructing temples for worship and prayers in homes. It is also used in crafting numerous artefacts, animal figures, jewellery boxes, garden accessories, decoration items (Fig. 13a) and several household and kitchen utensils, such as rolling boards, chopping boards, mortar, vases and coasters (Fig. 13b). It is a popular flooring material for offices, houses, schools, shopping malls, hotels, etc. (Fig. 13c). The Rajnagar Marble–carved sculptures are displayed in the middle of the roundabouts in Udaipur City (Fig. 13d). The Rajnagar Marble got international recognition during the twentieth century, with the export of slabs and tiles of various sizes to countries like Japan, Kuwait, USA, Nepal and Qatar (Cadène and Holmström, 1998; https://www.zauba.com/export-rajnagar-hs-code.html).

Fig. 13
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Contemporary usage of Rajnagar Marble in handicrafts and building industry. a Hand-painted white marble elephant statue. b Marble utensils. c Marble cladding and staircase at Head Office, Morward Marble Mines of RK Marble Pvt. Ltd. d Marble sculptures at roundabouts in Udaipur (photos by Sanchit Garg, Jaspreet Saini and Parminder Kaur)

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Conclusions

The iconic stones of India are being promoted for the GHSR designation by highlighting their historical usage and significance. The Rajnagar Marble of Rajsamand District of Rajasthan is one such stone that has been used in numerous architectural heritage structures constructed in the Mewar region during the last six centuries. The low water absorption, high bulk density and high compressive and tensile strength of the Rajnagar Marble render it technically suitable for monuments that have survived for centuries, with minor noticeable damage, except for slight yellowing of the stone. The Rajnagar Marble gained global acceptance during the late twentieth century with its export to various countries including the Middle East and Japan. At present, it is extensively used in the construction and handicraft industries, and contemporary artworks. Since Rajnagar Marble was considered God’s stone as per the Hindu cultural beliefs, it was not used for private dwellings. As an alternative, it was used in producing Ghutai for plastering the walls, pillars, lanterns or even floors to give the marble-finish to the surfaces. Ghutai is a unique heritage technique, typical of the erstwhile Mewar. In light of its unique traditional significance and wide historical applications, we propose Rajnagar Marble for the designation of Global Heritage Stone Resource from India.