Abstract
Purpose of review
Idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) is a surgically treatable neurological disorder of the elderly population that is characterized by abnormal ventricular enlargement due to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) accumulation and gait disturbance, cognitive impairment, or urinary incontinence. The objective of this review is to present the current diagnostic and treatment approaches for iNPH and to discuss some of the postoperative modalities that complement positive surgical outcomes.
Recent findings
Although historically reported patient outcomes following iNPH surgery were dismal and highly variable, recent advances in terms of better understanding of the iNPH disease process, better standardization of iNPH diagnostic and treatment processes arising from the adoption of clinical guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and in research methodologies, and availability of long-term follow-up data, have helped reduce the variations to a much improved 73 to 96% reported good outcomes.
Summary
With careful evaluation, good patient selection, and advanced surgical techniques, iNPH can be surgically treated to return patients close to their pre-iNPH functional status. Institution of an interdisciplinary effort to rehabilitate patients following surgery may help augment their recovery.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
Introduction
Hydrocephalus is a debilitating neurological disorder that may be operationally defined as the pathological accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the cerebral ventricles due to obstruction of CSF circulation, or a mismatch between normal CSF production and low resorption into the systemic circulation [1]. In many forms of hydrocephalus, the ventricular enlargement is associated with raised intracranial pressure (ICP) [2, 3]. However, in the early 1960s, Dr. Salomon Hakim described a group of patients who had developed hydrocephalus, yet had unexpectedly low-normal ICP, which he termed normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) [4, 5]. While Dr. Hakim’s initial NPH patients had sustained neurological injury, such as hemorrhage or trauma, prior to their hydrocephalus diagnosis, subsequent reports described elderly NPH patients who had no identifiable risk factors [6]. Thus, NPH was historically classified into secondary (sNPH) and idiopathic (iNPH), to differentiate those who have known causes from those who do not have any known risk factors for hydrocephalus [7]. We recommend abandoning the use of sNPH to describe acquired or unrecognized congenital adult hydrocephalus [8]. While these patients may have some symptoms that are similar to those with iNPH, the other clinical characteristics, pathophysiology, diagnostic strategy, and treatment response are significantly different when compared to those of patients with actual iNPH.
To clinically diagnose iNPH, the patient must be elderly (≥ age 60 years), have abnormal ventricular enlargement demonstrated on cranial computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and must have at least one of the iNPH triad of neurologic symptoms: gait disturbance, cognitive impairment, and urinary incontinence [9, 10]. Many experts consider gait impairment an essential symptom (Table 1).
iNPH is the most common form of hydrocephalus in the elderly, with reports of prevalence ranging from 10/100,000 to 5900/100,000 [11, 12] with a mean of 175/100,000 [13•]. In addition, the reported epidemiology is heterogeneous and varies from region to region [13•].
While the pathophysiology of iNPH development and recovery of neurologic impairment has not been fully characterized [14], there is evidence that the combined effects of impaired CSF flow dynamics, perturbed CSF biochemistry, and cerebrovascular compromise are mechanisms that mediate secondary brain injury mechanisms such as neuroinflammation, oxidative damage, and hypoxic-ischemic injury [15,16,17,18,19].
Over the past few decades, significant strides have been made in terms of iNPH diagnosis and care. However, the only effective treatment for iNPH is surgical CSF shunting. The primary goal of CSF shunting in iNPH is to compensate for the impaired CSF resorption by draining a sufficient amount of CSF to abrogate the cascades of secondary brain injury. However, the exact mechanisms of restoration of neurologic function in iNPH are not fully understood [20, 21]. Several pharmacological treatments for iNPH have been investigated [22], but to date there are no non-surgical therapies for the effective treatment of iNPH.
Following iNPH surgery, functional improvement strategies such as physical, occupational, and speech therapies, as well as social support, are often needed to return patients to their pre-iNPH functional status.
The objective of this review is to present the current diagnostic and treatment approaches for iNPH and to discuss some of the postoperative modalities that complement positive surgical outcomes.
Diagnostic evaluation
Initial assessment
The clinical approach to iNPH includes thorough history taking, physical examination, and careful review of imaging not only to diagnose the condition, but to rule out other differential diagnoses that could be responsible for the patient’s signs and symptoms. The examination also serves to record the patient’s pretreatment functional status as a benchmark for postoperative follow-up if the patient has shunt surgery.
The syndrome of iNPH is often conceptualized as dementia, gait impairment, and incontinence, but because these symptoms have so many different causes in the elderly, it may be better thought of as frontal/subcortical cognitive impairment, neurologic gait impairment, and neurologic bladder impairment. These distinctions are crucial, as patients whose symptoms are from comorbidities rather than iNPH do not benefit from shunt surgery [23].
Gait assessment
Approximately 94–100% of iNPH patients initially present with signs and symptoms of gait disturbance [10, 24]. Although the pattern and severity of gait impairment varies from one patient to another, the typical iNPH gait includes retropulsion or anteropulsion of stance, hesitation or failure to initiate gait, slow, shuffling and wide-based gait, reduced foot clearance, and difficulty with turning. These features are considered typical of a higher-level gait disorder, which is characterized by difficulty integrating sensory information about the position of the body in its environment, including the effect of gravity, which results in disturbed or absent postural and locomotor reflexes in the absence of primary sensorimotor deficits [25, 26]. There are several tests available that may be used to assess gait, such as the timed up-and-go test, Tinetti assessment tool, 10-m walk test, and the Boon scale [27,28,29,30]. Care must be taken to exclude other causes of gait impairment, such as sensory ataxia, cervical myelopathy with spastic gait features, or lumbar spinal stenosis with neurogenic claudication, as well as non-neurologic causes, including osteoarthritis, deconditioning, frailty, or medication side effects. Gait impairment is frequently considered an essential symptom of iNPH, and if the gait is normal, then a search for other causes of the patient’s syndrome is indicated before performing tests that are specific for iNPH.
Cognitive assessment
Cognitive impairment is identified in approximately 78–98% of iNPH patients [6, 10, 31]. However, the number of affected cognitive domains including attention, concentration, executive function, working memory, recall memory, visuo-constructional skills, and conceptual thinking varies between patients [32, 33]. Apathy, amotivation, and hypersomnolence are often present. The severity of cognitive impairment is also variable and may range from mild cognitive impairment to dementia [6]. Cognitive screening may be performed by established tests, such as the Montreal Cognitive Assessment [34]. The differential diagnosis includes, but is not restricted to, vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, frontotemporal dementia, Parkinsonism with dementia, and medication side effects. Not typical for iNPH are impaired language and naming, rapid forgetting not helped by cues (amnestic pattern), loss of autobiographical memory, hallucinations, or delirium [6]. Formal neuropsychological evaluation can be helpful in identifying the pattern of cognitive impairment. Depression is a common comorbidity in patients with iNPH [35], and screening and appropriate concurrent treatment should be considered. Because delirium can have significant negative impact on cognitive performance and is not a feature of iNPH, patients with delirium should not be assessed for iNPH until the delirium has been completely resolved, which typically means waiting to see them in the outpatient setting [6].
Urinary incontinence evaluation
At initial presentation, approximately 76–83% of iNPH patients have symptoms of urinary incontinence, frequency, and urgency. Diligent characterization of a patient’s urinary dysfunction is imperative to rule out other neurogenic or urologic causes of incontinence that may mimic iNPH, including myelopathy, overactive bladder syndrome, prostate disease, and pelvic floor dysfunction [6, 10, 36]. Mixed disorders may be present, or iNPH urinary incontinence may represent a change from a prior pattern of incontinence.
Radiological evaluation
Radiologic assessment requires a careful review of imaging to establish the patient has abnormally enlarged ventricles, rule out any potential confounding etiologies such as obstructive hydrocephalus, and set a baseline for follow-up imaging [23]. There are several approaches for objectively assessing ventricular size [37, 38], but the most commonly used is the Evans index. The Evans index is obtained as the ratio of width of frontal horns divided by the widest cranial diameter measured from the inner table of the skull on the same slice [39] (Fig. 1). Evans index > 0.3 is considered abnormal, but it is not specific for iNPH and should be interpreted within the clinical context because approximately 21% of patients over the age of 70 have an Evans index greater than 0.3 [39]. Another radiologic measure that is gaining use is disproportionately enlarged subarachnoid space hydrocephalus (DESH). DESH is a specific pattern of hydrocephalus that is characterized by 3 features, including ventriculomegaly as described above, the so-called high-tight convexity with effacement of the subarachnoid space at the vertex, and enlargement of the Sylvian fissures [40] (Fig. 2). Although DESH has shown promise for predicting shunt responsiveness [40,41,42], it is not a requirement for iNPH diagnosis [43].
Care should be taken to exclude the possibility of obstructive hydrocephalus resulting from aqueductal stenosis, brain tumor, or fourth ventricle outlet obstruction, as these forms of hydrocephalus may be seen in the elderly. If found, CSF removal via lumbar puncture may be contraindicated, and the decision to treat should follow the standards for obstructive hydrocephalus.
Differential diagnosis and comorbidities
Because iNPH occurs in the elderly population that tends to have multiple health conditions and comorbidities, such as osteoarthritis, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, Alzheimer dementia, diabetes, depression, medication side effects, and vision impairment [20, 35, 44,45,46,47,48,49,50], the need to rule out other diagnoses, and treat them if found, cannot be overemphasized (Table 2). A list of differential diagnoses of iNPH has been previously reviewed [6, 51, 52].
Another important issue to consider when assessing iNPH patients is that a significant proportion of the patient population are on antithrombotic medications for indications such as primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases, atrial fibrillation, vascular stents, or venous thrombosis, which places them at risk for perioperative bleeding [53,54,55]. Assessment of the risks and benefit of withholding antithrombotic agents for iNPH diagnostic tests and treatment should be carefully assessed on a case-by-case basis, as the need for anticoagulation is not necessarily a contraindication to the evaluation and treatment of iNPH [55, 56]. The timing and duration for holding medications prior to iNPH surgery have been previously reviewed [55, 57].
Diagnostic criteria
Presently, two major published clinical guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of iNPH exist: the international [9, 24] and the Japanese guidelines [10, 58, 59] (Table 1). The American Academy of Neurology has also presented recommendations that complement the two major guidelines [60]. Although nuances between the guidelines exist, consensus exists that iNPH diagnosis requires the following: the patient should be age 60 years or older; radiographic evidence of abnormal ventricular enlargement with an Evans ratio > 0.3 should be present; and the patient should have at least one of the primary symptoms (gait disturbance, cognitive impairment, or urinary incontinence). While the level of evidence reviewed to arrive at the conclusions and recommendations in the guidelines was variable and ranged from Sackett Grades I to V [61], the guidelines were developed by expert consortiums who reviewed the best available data. and updates to the guidelines have been provided when necessary [10, 59, 62].
Pre-surgical confirmatory tests
If iNPH remains a possibility after exclusion or treatment of comorbid disorders, then testing to predict whether surgery is likely to benefit the patient is usually performed [9, 24]. There are three main tests, including the tap test (also known as large volume lumbar puncture), drainage of CSF via a spinal catheter, known as external lumbar drainage (ELD), and infusion testing. The physiologic premise of the tap test and ELD is that the patient’s response to short-term drainage of CSF should predict the response to long-term drainage of CSF after shunt surgery. Before the CSF removal, formal evaluation of gait should be performed. Formal evaluation is required, as reliance solely on the report of the patient and family may be biased by the hope to see a response. Some centers also assess cognition. Following CSF removal, these tests are repeated, and the results are compared to the baseline results to assess for clinical improvement. Demonstration of improvement has been shown to be predictive of a favorable response to shunt surgery [6, 63, 64]. Nevertheless, lack of improvement following a confirmatory test should be evaluated on a patient-by-patient basis to determine need for further testing or bypass to shunt surgery, as the predictive values of the confirmatory tests are not perfect.
Tap test
Standard procedure
The tap test involves performing a standard lumbar puncture to remove a large volume of CSF from the lumbar CSF space. The patient may be positioned in the lateral decubitus or seated position. After prepping with topical antiseptic and applying sterile drapes, local anesthesia is infiltrated midline in the back at the L3–4 or L4–5 interspace. An LP needle is then inserted and advanced until CSF is encountered. Approximately 30–50 mL of CSF is collected, and the LP needle is removed. Measurement of opening pressure is not necessary, as the information does not confirm or refute the diagnosis of iNPH.
Contraindications
Lumbar puncture is contraindicated in the presence of obstructive hydrocephalus and should not be performed on patients receiving anticoagulation or anti-platelet therapy until the effect of these agents has been corrected. The LP needle should not be inserted through infected skin or tissue, as may be seen with pressure ulcers.
Complications
The most common complication associated with performing an LP is the post-LP headache, which occurs in 10–30% of all patients [65, 66]. However, experts have noted that the rate of post-LP headache is significantly lower in the elderly population being evaluated for iNPH. In the general population, bed rest has not been shown to significantly decrease the risk of post-LP headache [65, 66], and because the purpose of the tap test is to assess gait and mobility, many centers have patients upright immediately after the LP is completed and have them lie down only if they develop significant low-pressure symptoms.
Special points
As described above, gait and cognition must be evaluated before the LP is performed. Typically, patients are upright for 3 to 4 h after the LP before retesting gait and cognition. However, there is variability in the timelines of patient response following the tap test [67]. Therefore, it is recommended that patients who do not show improvement at 4 h post-LP may be retested at approximately 6 h. The positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and accuracy of the tap test for a favorable response to shunting are approximately 73–100%, 16–42%, and 45–54% respectively [68, 69].
Cost/cost-effectiveness
The tap test is the least expensive of the three iNPH tests, as it can be done in the outpatient setting and does not require any special equipment or prolonged monitoring. Costs are increased at centers that have LPs performed under fluoroscopic guidance and have physical therapy evaluate the gait before and afterwards [70].
External lumbar drainage
Standard procedure
The objective of external lumbar drainage (ELD) is similar to the tap test, i.e., to remove a large volume of CSF and assess the patient’s response. The main difference, however, is that ELD involves continuous CSF removal at a relatively low rate (10 mL/h) for 2 to 3 days. The total volume of CSF removed is higher, however, at a slower rate. Additionally, the duration of the CSF drainage effect is longer. Because a catheter must be passed through the needle for insertion, a larger diameter needle for the lumbar puncture (16- or 17-gauge Touhy) is required; however, in most circumstances, a longer needle is not needed. Once the lumbar catheter is in place and secured, it is connected to an external drainage system that is leveled to the external acoustic meatus for continuous CSF drainage, similar to the approach used for CSF drainage via an intraventricular catheter. At the end of the CSF drainage trial, the catheter is removed, and gait and cognitive reassessments are performed.
Contraindications
Similar to the tap test, contraindications include obstructive hydrocephalus, coagulopathy, and infection at the planned insertion site. Additionally, in the presence of significant scoliosis, lumbar spinal stenosis, or existing spinal instrumentation, fluoroscopic guidance for the LP and catheter insertion is recommended.
Complications
The most significant risk with ELD is infection, which occurs in 2–3% of patients [71]. Single-dose antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended so that the dose is fully administered 0–60 min prior to insertion of the needle. Low-pressure headache may occur with continuous CSF drainage; however, the drainage can be stopped or slowed in response. Catheter fracture is uncommon but may be a slightly higher risk in patients with significant spinal stenosis. Fracture of the catheter has also been reported at the time of removal.
Special points
As with the tap test, evaluation of gait and cognition must be performed prior to insertion of the spinal catheter, and upon completion of the CSF drainage. The ELD protocol is complex and should be done only at centers where a formal protocol is used and the expertise to perform and interpret the tests results is present. The ELD may be done as the first-line test or in patients who have not demonstrated improvement with the tap test. There is evidence that the ELD is a more reliable method for predicting shunt response in iNPH than the tap test, as ELDs have PPV, NPV, and accuracy of approximately 1–100%, 36–100%, and 58–100% respectively [68].
Cost/cost-effectiveness
Compared to the tap test, the ELD is relatively more costly as it requires admission to hospital for 3–4 days [72]. However, given the potential morbidity and mortality associated with shunt surgery, it is reasonable to give patients the opportunity to demonstrate response to surgery prior to subjecting them to those risks, and the high PPV of the ELD makes it a reliable measure [70].
Infusion test
Standard procedure
Several variations of the infusion test have been reported, but the fundamental approach is similar [73,74,75]. Two LP needles are inserted into the lumbar subarachnoid space: the first needle is connected to an infusion pump to infuse artificial CSF (e.g., ringers lactate [76]), while the second needle is connected to a closed-pressure recording device [76]. The patient then either remains in the lateral position, or in some centers, the patient rests on a bed with a fenestration that allows the patient to lie flat with the needles accessible through the opening while the infusion testing is performed [77, 78]. Different methods of infusion are performed, including constant volume or constant pressure [76]. With these techniques, the CSF outflow resistance, Rout, or its inverse, CSF conductance, can be calculated. Normal values for the elderly exist [79, 80]. If the patient’s CSF outflow resistance is significantly elevated, then shunt surgery is recommended. The test takes 1–2 h to complete and requires specialized equipment and personnel [76].
Contraindications
Similar to the tap test, obstructive hydrocephalus, infection at the insertion site, or coagulopathy are contraindications.
Complications
In a multicenter study of 562 patients who underwent infusion tests, symptoms experienced during the artificial CSF infusion included mild headaches, dizziness, and nausea. Post-LP headache and back pain within the first 24 h of the test occurred in 15% and 13%, respectively [78].
Special points
Infusion testing requires specialized equipment, a protocol, and trained personnel. Infusion tests have a PPV of approximately 75–92% [27, 81]; however, there is variability in the cut-off for Rout between studies [73,74,75]. It has been suggested that a Rout of 8 to 18 mmHg/ml/min is associated with the most favorable shunt outcomes [27, 81, 82].
Cost/cost-effectiveness
Compared to the tap test and ELD, the cost of the infusion test probably lies in the middle of the two because, although it may be performed as an outpatient procedure, it requires special equipment and expert staff [70].
Treatment
Natural history of iNPH
Although the pathogenesis of iNPH is not well characterized, the chronic progressive nature of symptoms suggests the disease process likely begins several years prior to presentation. In a population-based prospective 8-year study of 790 elderly individuals (age > 60 years old) [83] and a 10-year longitudinal study of 271 individuals (age > 70 years old) [84] where subjects underwent brain MRI, 1% had asymptomatic ventricular enlargement with features suspicious for iNPH at the beginning of each study. Over the course of their respective follow-ups, 25 [83] to 30% [84] of those patients with ventriculomegaly had developed clinical symptoms to warrant diagnosis and/or treatment of iNPH. These two studies suggest that ventricular dilation precedes iNPH symptoms by approximately a decade [Level III] [83, 84]. However, there are no guidelines on how to manage patients who present with ventriculomegaly suspicious for iNPH but who lack the clinical symptoms for iNPH. We currently recommend longitudinal follow-up and initiation of pre-surgical testing only when symptoms suspicious for iNPH occur. From a patient-reported symptom perspective, gait disturbance is the earliest and most common symptom of iNPH [10, 23, 24], followed by cognitive impairment [6, 10, 31], then urinary urgency and frequency [6, 10]. However, it remains uncertain how the timing of onset, order, magnitude, and duration the underlying pathological mechanisms of the iNPH phenotype progress prior to patients seeking medical attention.
We recommend patients with a diagnosis of iNPH undergo prompt treatment when possible as the natural history for untreated patients is dismal. Within 6 months of diagnosis, untreated patients undergo significant decline in their functional status (mRS score increases from 2 to 3) and in all iNPH-associated clinical domains (~ 12-point drop in iNPH scale), including cognition (~ 3-point in MMSE), gait and balance (~ 3- and 10-point drops respectively) and continence (~ 20-point drop) [Level III] [85]. In a review of 4 studies dealing with the natural history of iNPH, Toma et al. reported gait, cognition and continence deteriorated in 23–65%, 42–77%, and 23–59% respectively in untreated iNPH patients over a 3-month–7-year follow-up [86].
Delayed iNPH treatment is associated with worsening of symptoms as early as 3 months following diagnosis [85,86,87]. In a non-randomized intent-to-treat trial of 33 iNPH patients, 64% of 14 control patients demonstrated worsened gait and cognitive function from their baseline measures within 3–4 months of follow-up [Level III] [87].
The shunt system
The only effective treatment for iNPH is CSF diversion surgery, which is most commonly achieved with insertion of a shunt system. A shunt system comprises three connected parts: a proximal catheter (tube) which may be placed in the lateral ventricle or lumbar cistern; a distal catheter, which is placed in an absorptive cavity such as the peritoneum or the atrium of the heart; and a valve, which connects the proximal and distal catheters to help regulate the rate of CSF drainage [88]. There are variations in the size and configuration of the end of distal catheters (open vs closed fenestrated) [88]. There are also several types of shunt valves with the most commonly used classified as fixed pressure valves (low, medium, or high pressure) or programmable valves which allow adjustment of the valve opening pressure with a magnet-controlled mechanism [88]. Programmable valves are widely used in iNPH because their adjustability allows tuning of shunt pressure settings to tailor the rate of drainage based on clinical response and complications, without need for shunt revision [88, 89]. It is important to be aware that while iNPH shunt surgery does “decompress” the ventricles to mediate neurological improvement, post-shunt ventricular size is usually not dramatically changed [90].
Proximal ventricular catheter placement
Traditionally, proximal shunt catheters have been passed freehand into the frontal horn of the lateral ventricle. Huyette et al. assessed the accuracy of freehand placement in a retrospective cohort of 97 patients and demonstrated that approximately 44% of freehand proximal catheters were inadvertently placed in regions other than the intended ipsilateral frontal horn, including into extraventricular spaces [Level IV] [91]. In the past 2 decades, several adjunctive techniques have been employed to guide the placement of proximal catheters in order to reduce the risks of catheter-related complications and failure in adult patients. Some of these techniques in adults have included the Headband posterior ventricular catheter guide [92], Wishbone cranial midline marking device [93], and the Ghajar guide [94], as well as framed and frameless stereotactic systems [95,96,97]. In a prospective multicenter study, Hayhurst et al. showed that electromagnetic-navigated proximal shunt placement reduces poor shunt placement and early failure rate [Level III] [97].
Ventricular and lumbar proximal catheters
In North America and Europe, the most commonly performed shunt surgery for iNPH is VP shunt whereas in Japan and other parts of Asia, LP shunts predominate [41•, 98, 99]. The rate of favorable outcomes of shunt surgery in iNPH ranges from 71 to 90% [Level II–IV] [98, 100, 101]. In an open-label randomized trial (SINPHONI-2), 63% of patients who underwent LP shunts had favorable outcomes at 12 months [Level III] [41•]. Although VP and LP shunt outcomes appear to be equal in terms of outcomes, the choice of one surgical approach over another seems to be driven by regional or cultural differences [41•, 102]. In a prospective multicenter center study, Miyajima et al. showed that improvement in modified Rankin score and iNPH grading scale [103] were similar between 83 patients with LP shunts when compared to historical data patients treated with VP shunts [Level III or IV] [99].
Distal peritoneal catheter placement
Distal peritoneal catheter problems represent the most common cause of VP shunt failure (90%) in patients with iNPH. Overall, 30–50% of patients will experience shunt failure within the first 2–3 years after insertion [88]. The “standard” peritoneal catheter placement technique (VP or LP shunt) involves insertion of the distal catheter into the peritoneal cavity either via a mini-laparotomy or a trocar conduit. Unfortunately, neither of the two techniques allow for direct visualization of the distal catheter within the peritoneal cavity, which predisposes to a potential risk of bowel perforation, catheter dislodgement, and shunt obstruction. More recently, addition of a laparoscopic approach, which is typically performed by a general surgeon, to place the distal catheter under direct visualization within the peritoneal cavity, is being adopted to mitigate those risks [104, 105•]. In a randomized control trial of 120 patients (60 laparoscopy versus 60 mini-laparotomy) who underwent distal catheter shunt placement, there were no distal shunt failures in the laparoscopy group, whereas 8% of the mini-laparotomy group had distal failures within 12 months of surgery [Level I] [105•]. Peritoneal catheter malfunction occurs secondary to occlusion by omentum, bowel, debris, or intraabdominal fibrous adhesions. To reduce this risk, the distal catheter can be placed away from the omentum, which may be achieved laparoscopically passing the catheter through a small hole placed in the falciform ligament into the paracolic gutter. This procedure also anchors the catheter behind the liver which helps reduce risks of catheter migration [106]. In a consecutive cohort study by Svoboda et al., there were no distal catheter failures in 58 patients who underwent the “falciform ligament technique” [Level IV] [107].
Distal atrial catheter placement
Besides the peritoneal cavity, the distal catheter may be placed in other cavities including the right atrium of the heart (ventriculoatrial (VA) shunts) [108,109,110], gall bladder [111], and pleural cavity [112, 113]. However, the most common is typically the VA shunt [110, 114]. Early reports of high failure and complication rates with VA shunts5 have likely contributed to relegation of the VA shunt to second-line therapy that is used when distal catheter placement in peritoneal cavity is not technically possible or has failed [110, 115]. However, enhanced operative techniques with reduced shunt infection rates [116] and use of adjunctive equipment such as fluoroscopy and echocardiography [108, 109], have significantly improved VA shunt complication and failure rates. In a retrospective review of 150 iNPH patients who underwent VA shunt surgery, Hung et al. reported a 5% distal catheter failure rate over a mean 15 months of follow-up [Level IV] [110]. Recently, transesophageal echocardiography (TEE)-guided distal catheter insertions have gained favorability [114, 117] as they provide 2-dimensional visualization and real-time catheter monitoring of the distal catheter to facilitate precise placement, do not carry risks of radiation and allergic response to contrast, and do not interfere with the surgical field [114]. Although, there are only a few case reports and case series on the use of TEE for VA shunt placement, their results are very promising as TEE is able to significantly reduce distal catheter failures and shunt-related complications [Level IV] [114, 117, 118].
Shunt complications and approaches to prevention
Cardiopulmonary complications due to general anesthesia and postoperative thromboembolic disease are major considerations, but in most circumstances with adequate patient screening and preoperative preparation, they should be uncommon. Serious complications of the shunt insertion procedure should also be low with modern techniques. With the use of neuronavigation assistance, malposition of the ventricular catheter is rare. Inadvertent brain injury or significant tract hemorrhage along the course the proximal catheter is uncommon (< 1%). Mild intraventricular hemorrhage is not uncommon (especially in the occipital horns) but is typically not clinically significant. Lung injury due to an inadvertent breach with the tunneling device is possible but very rare. There is also the potential risk to injure intraabdominal contents, particularly viscus perforation and liver injury, all of which are significantly reduced with laparoscopic peritoneal catheter insertion. The infection rate associated with shunt surgery can be kept to less than 2% in iNPH patients when a shunt infection prevention strategy is routinely utilized [116].
Non-shunt surgical techniques
An alternative to shunting is the creation of a shunt-less conduit between the ventricular system and the subarachnoid space. This is typically done with an endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV), which involves utilizing a neuroendoscope to make a hole in the floor of the third ventricle to allow passage of CSF into the basal cisterns. However, unlike shunting, which has been consistently shown to be efficacious, the outcomes of ETV have not been favorable for the treatment of iNPH [119,120,121]. As such, shunting remains the only recommended treatment for patients with iNPH [10, 59, 60].
Non-surgical treatment
Several drug therapies have been explored for the treatment of iNPH [22], but none has yielded consistent results to warrant adoption as pharmacological treatment of iNPH. There are also no specific lifestyle modifications that have been shown to prevent, modify, or treat iNPH. Nevertheless, since majority of the comorbidities identified in iNPH patients respond well to regular exercising, smoking cessation, and healthy diets [17, 35, 48, 49], it is possible that healthy lifestyle choices may help reduce one’s risk for iNPH [49].
Treatment outcomes
Historic reports on the surgical outcomes of iNPH had been highly variable, with good results ranging from 24 to 96% [122, 123]. This has previously generated interesting negative discussions on the efficacy of iNPH treatment and hesitation to accept iNPH as a disease entity separate from other untreatable forms of dementia. However, advances in the past few decades in terms of better understanding of the iNPH disease process, better standardization of iNPH diagnostic and treatment processes arising from the adoption of clinical guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and in research methodologies, and availability of long-term follow-up data, have helped reduce the variations in reported good outcomes to a much improved 73 to 96% [98, 100, 101, 124]. Of the triad, gait is the earliest and most dramatically responsive symptom, and improvement may continue even years after surgery [125, 126]. Cognitive [127, 128] and bladder symptom ( [57,74,78,93]) improvement have been reported to occur in 60–80% of patients [129,130,131]. It is important to consider iNPH as a chronic disease and that patients require life-long longitudinal care to ensure optimization of neurological function. Suspected shunt malfunction should be investigated and if confirmed can be surgically managed with an expectation for restoration of pre-shunt failure neurological condition.
Physical therapy and exercise
Rehabilitation is an important aspect of iNPH treatment, especially in the early stages of recovery following surgery. While rehabilitation programs for other neurological diseases such as stroke, traumatic brain injury, and dementia are effective for iNPH patients following treatment, there have not been any Level I-III studies that have assessed specific programs for their feasibility and effectiveness. Rehabilitation for patients with iNPH should be an interdisciplinary effort and may include physicians, neuropsychologists, nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, and recreational therapists. The goal of postoperative rehab is to help improve patients function in four major aspects: gait, cognition, continence, and psychosocial health. However, the goals of any prescribed rehabilitation program must be realistic, taking into account the patients’ premorbid functional status, comorbidities, and resource availability. Typically, patients undergo an initial assessment as inpatients to document their level of function following surgery to facilitate decisions on the need, duration, and setting (inpatient vs outpatient) for rehabilitation.
Physical therapy
Usage
The principles and goals of therapy are typically based on geriatric rehabilitation and fall prevention in other well-studied neurological diseases of the elderly such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases, where Level I and II data are available [132, 133]. The majority of patients require balance and gait exercises commensurate with the severity of dysfunction. The goal of physical therapy is to improve balance and gait quality and safety. However, some patients may require strength exercises to facilitate their recovery of mobility. The physical therapy program should start with an initial evaluation of function and goal setting with the patient. The focus on a specific goal and duration of training may change over time depending on the relative improvement of patients in each domain.
Occupational/neuropsychological therapy
Usage
Occupational therapy addresses issues related to cognition, urinary continence, self-care, adaptability to living environment, and facilitation of compensatory strategies. In some centers, cognitive rehabilitation efforts are administered by neuropsychologists. Cognitive rehabilitation involves exercises that help to improve visual and verbal memory (learning and recall), orientation, attention, speed of information processing, judgment, and self-awareness. Although uncommonly required, speech therapy may be sometimes be required. Urinary continence rehabilitation typically includes toileting programs such as improving toileting times.
References and Recommended Reading
Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance
Rekate HL. A contemporary definition and classification of hydrocephalus. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2009;16(1):9–15.
Kahle KT, Kulkarni AV, Limbrick DD Jr, Warf BC. Hydrocephalus in children. Lancet. 2016;387(10020):788–99.
Eide PK. The pathophysiology of chronic noncommunicating hydrocephalus: lessons from continuous intracranial pressure monitoring and ventricular infusion testing. J Neurosurg. 2018;129(1):220–33.
Hakim S. Algunas observaciones sobre la presion del L.C.R. Sindrome. Hidrocefalico en el Adulto con "Presion Normal" del L.C.R.(Presentacion de un Nuevo Sindrome). Bogota: Javeriana University; 1964.
Hakim S, Adams RD. The special clinical problem of symptomatic hydrocephalus with normal cerebrospinal fluid pressure. Observations on cerebrospinal fluid hydrodynamics. J Neurol Sci. 1965;2(4):307–27.
Williams MA, Relkin NR. Diagnosis and management of idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Neurol Clin Pract. 2013;3(5):375–85.
Malm J, Eklund A. Idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Pract Neurol. 2006;6(1):14–27.
Williams MA, Nagel SJ, Luciano MG, Relkin N, Zwimpfer TJ, Katzen H, et al. The clinical spectrum of hydrocephalus in adults: report of the first 517 patients of the adult hydrocephalus clinical research network registry. J Neurosurg. 2019:1–12.
Relkin N, Marmarou A, Klinge P, Bergsneider M, Black PM. INPH guidelines, part II: diagnosing idio-pathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery. 2005;57(3 SUPPL):S2-4–S2-16.
Mori E, Ishikawa M, Kato T, Kazui H, Miyake H, Miyajima M, et al. Guidelines for management of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus: second edition. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2012;52(11):775–809.
Kuriyama N, Miyajima M, Nakajima M, Kurosawa M, Fukushima W, Watanabe Y, et al. Nationwide hospital-based survey of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus in Japan: epidemiological and clinical characteristics. Brain Behav. 2017;7(3):e00635.
Jaraj D, Rabiei K, Marlow T, Jensen C, Skoog I, Wikkelso C. Prevalence of idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Neurology. 2014;82(16):1449–54.
Isaacs AM, Riva-Cambrin J, Yavin D, Hockley A, Pringsheim TM, Jette N, et al. Age-specific global epidemiology of hydrocephalus: systematic review, metanalysis and global birth surveillance. PLoS One. 2018;13(10):e0204926. Isaacs, et al reported a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis that defines the prevalence of iNPH as 175/100,000. The prevalence increases with age to 5,900/100,000 for those >85 years old.
Williams MA, McAllister JP, Walker ML, Kranz DA, Bergsneider M, Del Bigio MR, et al. Priorities for hydrocephalus research: report from a National Institutes of Health-sponsored workshop. J Neurosurg. 2007;107(5 Suppl):345–57.
Graff-Radford NR, Godersky JC. Symptomatic congenital hydrocephalus in the elderly simulating normal pressure hydrocephalus. Neurology. 1989;39(12):1596–600.
Krauss JK, Regel JP, Vach W, Droste DW, Borremans JJ, Mergner T. Vascular risk factors and arteriosclerotic disease in idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus of the elderly. Stroke. 1996;27(1):24–9.
Jaraj D, Agerskov S, Rabiei K, Marlow T, Jensen C, Guo X, et al. Vascular factors in suspected normal pressure hydrocephalus: a population-based study. Neurology. 2016;86(7):592–9.
Bech RA, Waldemar G, Gjerris F, Klinken L, Juhler M. Shunting effects in patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus; correlation with cerebral and leptomeningeal biopsy findings. Acta Neurochir. 1999;141(6):633–9.
Bech RA, Juhler M, Waldemar G, Klinken L, Gjerris F. Frontal brain and leptomeningeal biopsy specimens correlated with cerebrospinal fluid outflow resistance and B-wave activity in patients suspected of normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery. 1997;40(3):497–502.
Malm J, Graff-Radford NR, Ishikawa M, Kristensen B, Leinonen V, Mori E, et al. Influence of comorbidities in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus - research and clinical care. A report of the ISHCSF task force on comorbidities in INPH. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2013;10(1):22.
Mocco J, Tomey MI, Komotar RJ, Mack WJ, Frucht SJ, Goodman RR, et al. Ventriculoperitoneal shunting of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus increases midbrain size: a potential mechanism for gait improvement. Neurosurgery. 2006;59(4):847–50 discussion 50-1.
Del Bigio MR, Di Curzio DL. Nonsurgical therapy for hydrocephalus: a comprehensive and critical review. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2016;13(1):3.
Williams MA, Malm J. Diagnosis and treatment of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2016;22(2 Dementia):579–99.
Marmarou A, Bergsneider M, Relkin N, Klinge P, Black PM. Development of guidelines for idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus: introduction. Neurosurgery. 2005;57(3 Suppl):S1–3; discussion ii-v.
Nutt JG. Higher-level gait disorders: an open frontier. Mov Disord. 2013;28(11):1560–5.
Nutt JG, Marsden CD, Thompson PD. Human walking and higher-level gait disorders, particularly in the elderly. Neurology. 1993;43(2):268–79.
Boon AJ, Tans JT, Delwel EJ, Egeler-Peerdeman SM, Hanlo PW, Wurzer HA, et al. Dutch normal-pressure hydrocephalus study: prediction of outcome after shunting by resistance to outflow of cerebrospinal fluid. J Neurosurg. 1997;87(5):687–93.
Tinetti ME. Performance-oriented assessment of mobility problems in elderly patients. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1986;34(2):119–26.
Podsiadlo D, Richardson S. The timed "up & go": a test of basic functional mobility for frail elderly persons. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1991;39(2):142–8.
Graham JE, Ostir GV, Fisher SR, Ottenbacher KJ. Assessing walking speed in clinical research: a systematic review. J Eval Clin Pract. 2008;14(4):552–62.
Relkin N, Marmarou A, Klinge P, Bergsneider M, Black PM. Diagnosing idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery. 2005;57(3 Suppl):S4–16; discussion ii-v.
Picascia M, Zangaglia R, Bernini S, Minafra B, Sinforiani E, Pacchetti C. A review of cognitive impairment and differential diagnosis in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Funct Neurol. 2015;30(4):217–29.
Saito M, Nishio Y, Kanno S, Uchiyama M, Hayashi A, Takagi M, et al. Cognitive profile of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra. 2011;1(1):202–11.
Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bedirian V, Charbonneau S, Whitehead V, Collin I, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53(4):695–9.
Israelsson H, Allard P, Eklund A, Malm J. Symptoms of depression are common in patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus: the INPH-CRasH study. Neurosurgery. 2016;78(2):161–8.
Klausner AP, Ellen EF, Collins CW, Marmarou A, Young HF, Boling PA, et al. Characterization of urinary incontinence in patients with normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH). Journal of Urology. 2008;179(4):353-.
Virhammar J, Laurell K, Cesarini KG, Larsson EM. The callosal angle measured on MRI as a predictor of outcome in idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg. 2014;120(1):178–84.
Reinard K, Basheer A, Phillips S, Snyder A, Agarwal A, Jafari-Khouzani K, et al. Simple and reproducible linear measurements to determine ventricular enlargement in adults. Surg Neurol Int. 2015;6:59.
Jaraj D, Rabiei K, Marlow T, Jensen C, Skoog I, Wikkelso C. Estimated ventricle size using Evans index: reference values from a population-based sample. Eur J Neurol. 2017;24(3):468–74.
Hashimoto M, Ishikawa M, Mori E, Kuwana N, Study of Ioni. Diagnosis of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus is supported by MRI-based scheme: a prospective cohort study. Cerebrospinal Fluid Res. 2010;7(1):18.
Kazui H, Miyajima M, Mori E, Ishikawa M, Investigators S-. Lumboperitoneal shunt surgery for idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (SINPHONI-2): an open-label randomised trial. Lancet Neurol. 2015;14(6):585–94. Kazui, et al reported a prospective multicenter randomized clinical trial (RCT) of 93 patients with iNPH and DESH. 44/93 had shunt surgery delayed by 3 months. 65% of shunted patients improved at 3 months compared with 5% of delayed patients. Improvement was equivalent for both groups at 12 months. This RCT used clinical and radiological criteria without a tap test and clearly demonstrated benefit from shunt surgery. The overall lower treatment outcome success reflects using clinical and radiological criteria without a tap test which decreased the sensitivity of the patient selection process.
Ishikawa M, Oowaki H, Takezawa M, Takenaka T, Yamada S, Yamamoto K, et al. Disproportionately enlarged subarachnoid space hydrocephalus in idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus and its implication in pathogenesis. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2016;122:287–90.
Ahmed AK, Luciano M, Moghekar A, Shin J, Aygun N, Sair HI, et al. Does the presence or absence of DESH predict outcomes in adult hydrocephalus? AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2018;39(11):2022–6.
Graff-Radford NR, Godersky JC. Idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus and systemic hypertension. Neurology. 1987;37(5):868–71.
Casmiro M, D'Alessandro R, Cacciatore FM, Daidone R, Calbucci F, Lugaresi E. Risk factors for the syndrome of ventricular enlargement with gait apraxia (idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus): a case-control study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1989;52(7):847–52.
Krauss JK, Droste DW, Vach W, Regel JP, Orszagh M, Borremans JJ, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid shunting in idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus of the elderly: effect of periventricular and deep white matter lesions. Neurosurgery. 1996;39(2):292–9 discussion 9-300.
Jacobs L. Diabetes mellitus in normal pressure hydrocephalus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1977;40(4):331–5.
Andren K, Wikkelso C, Sundstrom N, Agerskov S, Israelsson H, Laurell K, et al. Long-term effects of complications and vascular comorbidity in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus: a quality registry study. J Neurol. 2018;265(1):178–86.
Israelsson H, Carlberg B, Wikkelsö C, Laurell K, Kahlon B, Eklund A, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors are associated with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Fluids and Barriers of the CNS. 2015;12(Suppl 1):O41.
Vaes B, Pasquet A, Wallemacq P, Rezzoug N, Mekouar H, Olivier PA, et al. The BELFRAIL (BFC80+) study: a population-based prospective cohort study of the very elderly in Belgium. BMC Geriatr. 2010;10:39.
Isaacs AM, Hamilton MG, Williams MA. Hydrocephalus in the elderly: Diagnosis of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Brain and Spine Surgery in the Elderly2017. p. 455–467.
Isaacs AM, Hamilton MG, Williams MA. Idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. In: Limbrick Jr DD, Leonard JR, editors. Cerebrospinal fluid disorders : lifelong implications. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. p. 219–35.
Robert-Ebadi H, Le Gal G, Righini M. Use of anticoagulants in elderly patients: practical recommendations. Clin Interv Aging. 2009;4:165–77.
Spyropoulos AC, Merli G. Management of venous thromboembolism in the elderly. Drugs Aging. 2006;23(8):651–71.
Hamilton MG, Golfinos J, Pineo G, Couldwell WT. Handbook of bleeding and coagulation for neurosurgery. 1st New York: Thieme; 2015.
Goodwin CR, Kharkar S, Wang P, Pujari S, Rigamonti D, Williams MA. Evaluation and treatment of patients with suspected normal pressure hydrocephalus on long-term warfarin anticoagulation therapy. Neurosurgery. 2007;60(3):497–501 discussion 2.
Lip GYHaDJD. Perioperative management of patients receiving anticoagulants In: UpToDate, Post TW (Ed). Accessed on June 5, 2016 ed: UpToDate; 2016.
Ishikawa M. Guideline Committe for Idiopathic Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus JSoNPH. Clinical guidelines for idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2004;44(4):222–3.
Ishikawa M, Hashimoto M, Kuwana N, Mori E, Miyake H, Wachi A, et al. Guidelines for management of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus: Guidelines from the Guidelines committee of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus, the Japanese society of normal pressure hydrocephalus. Neurologia Medico-Chirurgica. 2008;48(SUPPL):S1–S23.
Halperin JJ, Kurlan R, Schwalb JM, Cusimano MD, Gronseth G, Gloss D. Practice guideline: idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus: response to shunting and predictors of response: report of the guideline development, dissemination, and implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of neurology. Neurology. 2015;85(23):2063–71.
Sackett DL. Rules of evidence and clinical recommendations on the use of antithrombotic agents. Chest. 1989;95(2):2S–4S.
Tarnaris A, Williams MA. Idiopathic Normal pressure hydrocephalus: update and practical approach on diagnosis and management. Neurosurg Q. 2011;21(1):72–81.
Ishikawa M, Hashimoto M, Mori E, Kuwana N, Kazui H. The value of the cerebrospinal fluid tap test for predicting shunt effectiveness in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2012;9(1):1.
Ishikawa MaHMaKNaMEaMHaWAaTTaKHaKH. Guidelines for management of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. 2008.
Thoennissen J, Herkner H, Lang W, Domanovits H, Laggner AN, Mullner M. Does bed rest after cervical or lumbar puncture prevent headache? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Can Med Assoc J. 2001;165(10):1311–6.
Arevalo-Rodriguez I, Ciapponi A, Figuls MRI, Munoz L, Cosp XB. Posture and fluids for preventing post-dural puncture headache. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;3.
Virhammar J, Cesarini KG, Laurell K. The CSF tap test in normal pressure hydrocephalus: evaluation time, reliability and the influence of pain. Eur J Neurol. 2012;19(2):271–6.
Mahr CV, Dengl M, Nestler U, Reiss-Zimmermann M, Eichner G, Preuss M, et al. Idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus: diagnostic and predictive value of clinical testing, lumbar drainage, and CSF dynamics. J Neurosurg. 2016;125(3):591–7.
Wikkelso C, Hellstrom P, Klinge PM, Tans JT. European i NPHMSG. The European iNPH multicentre study on the predictive values of resistance to CSF outflow and the CSF tap test in patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2013;84(5):562–8.
Tullberg M, Persson J, Petersen J, Hellstrom P, Wikkelso C, Lundgren-Nilsson A. Shunt surgery in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus is cost-effective-a cost utility analysis. Acta Neurochir. 2018;160(3):509–18.
Greenberg BM, Williams MA. Infectious complications of temporary spinal catheter insertion for diagnosis of adult hydrocephalus and idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Neurosurgery. 2008;62(2):431–5 discussion 5-6.
Burnett MG, Sonnad SS, Stein SC. Screening tests for normal-pressure hydrocephalus: sensitivity, specificity, and cost. J Neurosurg. 2006;105(6):823–9.
Kahlon B, Sundbarg G, Rehncrona S. Comparison between the lumbar infusion and CSF tap tests to predict outcome after shunt surgery in suspected normal pressure hydrocephalus. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 2002;73(6):721–6.
Hussey F, Schanzer B, Katzman R. A simple constant-infusion manometric test for measurement of CSF absorption. II Clinical studies Neurology. 1970;20(7):665–80.
Eklund A, Smielewski P, Chambers I, Alperin N, Malm J, Czosnyka M, et al. Assessment of cerebrospinal fluid outflow resistance. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2007;45(8):719–35.
Kahlon B, Sundbarg G, Rehncrona S. Lumbar infusion test in normal pressure hydrocephalus. Acta Neurol Scand. 2005;111(6):379–84.
Qvarlander S, Lundkvist B, Koskinen LO, Malm J, Eklund A. Pulsatility in CSF dynamics: pathophysiology of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2013;84(7):735–41.
Malm J, Sundstrom N, Cesarini KG, Edsbagge M, Kristensen B, Leijon G, et al. Implementation of a new CSF dynamic device: a multicenter feasibility study in 562 patients. Acta Neurol Scand. 2012;125(3):199–205.
Malm J, Jacobsson J, Birgander R, Eklund A. Reference values for CSF outflow resistance and intracranial pressure in healthy elderly. Neurology. 2011;76(10):903–9.
Jacobsson J, Qvarlander S, Eklund A, Malm J. Comparison of the CSF dynamics between patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus and healthy volunteers. J Neurosurg. 2018:1–6.
Malm J, Kristensen B, Karlsson T, Fagerlund M, Elfverson J, Ekstedt J. The predictive value of cerebrospinal fluid dynamic tests in patients with th idiopathic adult hydrocephalus syndrome. Arch Neurol. 1995;52(8):783–9.
Malm J, Kristensen B, Fagerlund M, Koskinen LO, Ekstedt J. Cerebrospinal fluid shunt dynamics in patients with idiopathic adult hydrocephalus syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;58(6):715–23.
Iseki C, Kawanami T, Nagasawa H, Wada M, Koyama S, Kikuchi K, et al. Asymptomatic ventriculomegaly with features of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus on MRI (AVIM) in the elderly: a prospective study in a Japanese population. J Neurol Sci. 2009;277(1–2):54–7.
Iseki C, Takahashi Y, Wada M, Kawanami T, Adachi M, Kato T. Incidence of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH): a 10-year follow-up study of a rural community in Japan. J Neurol Sci. 2014;339(1–2):108–12.
Andren K, Wikkelso C, Tisell M, Hellstrom P. Natural course of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2014;85(7):806–10.
Toma AK, Stapleton S, Papadopoulos MC, Kitchen ND, Watkins LD. Natural history of idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Neurosurg Rev. 2011;34(4):433–9.
Razay G, Vreugdenhil A, Liddell J. A prospective study of ventriculo-peritoneal shunting for idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. J Clin Neurosci. 2009;16(9):1180–3.
Isaacs AM, Williams MA, Hamilton MG. Hydrocephalus in the elderly: Surgical management of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Brain and Spine Surgery in the Elderly2017. p. 469–500.
Serarslan Y, Yilmaz A, Cakir M, Guzel E, Akakin A, Guzel A, et al. Use of programmable versus nonprogrammable shunts in the management of normal pressure hydrocephalus: a multicenter retrospective study with cost-benefit analysis in Turkey. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(39):e8185.
Meier U, Mutze S. Correlation between decreased ventricular size and positive clinical outcome following shunt placement in patients with normal-pressure hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg. 2004;100(6):1036–40.
Huyette DR, Turnbow BJ, Kaufman C, Vaslow DF, Whiting BB, Oh MY. Accuracy of the freehand pass technique for ventriculostomy catheter placement: retrospective assessment using computed tomography scans. J Neurosurg. 2008;108(1):88–91.
Garell PC, Mirsky R, Noh MD, Loftus CM, Hitchon PW, Grady MS, et al. Posterior ventricular catheter burr-hole localizer. Technical note. J Neurosurg. 1998;89(1):157–60.
Zanaty M, Banu M, Flouty O, Grady S, Holland MT. Isaacs A, et al. A Cranial Midline Localizing Device. World Neurosurg: The Wishbone; 2019.
Ghajar JB. A guide for ventricular catheter placement. Technical note J Neurosurg. 1985;63(6):985–6.
Azeem SS, Origitano TC. Ventricular catheter placement with a frameless neuronavigational system: a 1-year experience. Neurosurgery. 2007;60(4 Suppl 2):243–7 discussion 7-8.
Jung N, Kim D. Effect of electromagnetic navigated ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement on failure rates. J Korean Neurosurg Soc. 2013;53(3):150–4.
Hayhurst C, Beems T, Jenkinson MD, Byrne P, Clark S, Kandasamy J, et al. Effect of electromagnetic-navigated shunt placement on failure rates: a prospective multicenter study. J Neurosurg. 2010;113(6):1273–8.
Toma AK, Papadopoulos MC, Stapleton S, Kitchen ND, Watkins LD. Systematic review of the outcome of shunt surgery in idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Acta Neurochir. 2013;155(10):1977–80.
Miyajima M, Kazui H, Mori E, Ishikawa M. Sinphoni-investigators obot. One-year outcome in patients with idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus: comparison of lumboperitoneal shunt to ventriculoperitoneal shunt. J Neurosurg. 2016;125(6):1483–92.
Eide PK, Sorteberg W. Outcome of surgery for idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus: role of preoperative static and pulsatile intracranial pressure. World Neurosurg. 2016;86(C):186–93 e1.
Golz L, Ruppert FH, Meier U, Lemcke J. Outcome of modern shunt therapy in patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus 6 years postoperatively. J Neurosurg. 2014;121(4):771–5.
Bergsneider M, Black PM, Klinge P, Marmarou A, Relkin N. Surgical management of idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery. 2005;57(3 Suppl):S29–39; discussion ii-v.
Kubo Y, Kazui H, Yoshida T, Kito Y, Kimura N, Tokunaga H, et al. Validation of grading scale for evaluating symptoms of idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2008;25(1):37–45.
Raysi Dehcordi S, De Tommasi C, Ricci A, Marzi S, Ruscitti C, Amicucci G, et al. Laparoscopy-assisted ventriculoperitoneal shunt surgery: personal experience and review of the literature. Neurosurg Rev. 2011;34(3):363–70 discussion 70-1.
Schucht P, Banz V, Trochsler M, Iff S, Krahenbuhl AK, Reinert M, et al. Laparoscopically assisted ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement: a prospective randomized controlled trial. J Neurosurg. 2015;122(5):1058–67. Schucht, et al, reported a prospective multicenter RCT of 120 adult patients with hydrocephalus undergoing VP shunt surgery with randomization to laparoscopic (no distal shunt failures) or conventional mini-laparotomy (8% distal shunt failures) for peritoneal catheter insertion. Patients in the laparoscopic group had no distal shunt failures compared with 8% of the mini-laparotomy, although overall shunt failure was the same. This paper demonstrated the feasibility of RCTs to evaluate possible improvements for shunt surgery and a need to focus on all aspects of the operation.
Isaacs AM, Ball C, Urbaneja G, Holubkov R, Hamilton MG. Laparoscopic-guided distal ventriculoperitoneal shunt insertion improves shunt outcome in adult patients: results of a cohort study with 222 patients experiencing 268 shunt operations. Fluids and Barriers of the CNS. 2018;15(Suppl 1):A63.
Svoboda SM, Park H, Naff N, Dorai Z, Williams MA, Youssef Y. Preventing distal catheter obstruction in laparoscopic ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement in adults: the "Falciform technique". J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A. 2015;25(8):642–5.
Epstein N, Epstein F, Trehan N. Percutaneous placement of the atrial end of a vascular shunt utilizing the Swan-Ganz introducer. Neurosurgery. 1981;9(5):564–5.
Tomita T. Placement of a ventriculoatrial shunt using external jugular catheterization: technical note. Neurosurgery. 1984;14(1):74–5.
Hung AL, Vivas-Buitrago T, Adam A, Lu J, Robison J, Elder BD, et al. Ventriculoatrial versus ventriculoperitoneal shunt complications in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2017;157:1–6.
Girotti ME, Singh RR, Rodgers BM. The ventriculo-gallbladder shunt in the treatment of refractory hydrocephalus: a review of the current literature. Am Surg. 2009;75(8):734–7.
Szajer J, Russo R, Mansberg R. Ventriculopleural shunt dysfunction due to a Loculated pleural collection demonstrated on SPECT/CT imaging. Clin Nucl Med. 2018;43(2):144–6.
Willison CD, Kopitnik TA, Gustafson R, Kaufman HH. Ventriculopleural shunting used as a temporary diversion. Acta Neurochir. 1992;115(1–2):67–8.
Chuang HL, Chang CN, Hsu JC. Minimally invasive procedure for ventriculoatrial shunt-combining a percutaneous approach with real-time transesophageal echocardiogram monitoring: report of six cases. Chang Gung Med J. 2002;25(1):62–6.
McGovern RA, Kelly KM, Chan AK, Morrissey NJ, McKhann GM 2nd. Should ventriculoatrial shunting be the procedure of choice for normal-pressure hydrocephalus? J Neurosurg. 2014;120(6):1458–64.
Hamilton MG, Fung A, Lam-Li D, Isaacs AM, Conly J. Development and application of a surgical site infection prevention bundle for shunt-related insertions and revisions. Fluids and Barriers of the CNS. 2018;15(Suppl 1):A54.
Machinis TG, Fountas KN, Hudson J, Robinson JS, Troup EC. Accurate placement of the distal end of a ventriculoatrial shunt with the aid of real-time transesophageal echocardiography. Technical note. J Neurosurg. 2006;105(1):153–6.
Hamilton MG, Isaacs AM, Urbaneja G, Krahn D, Rogan K, Walker A, et al. Ventriculo-atrial shunt insertion using transesophageal echo: initial experience. Fluids and Barriers of the CNS. 2018;15(S1):A53.
Gangemi M, Maiuri F, Naddeo M, Godano U, Mascari C, Broggi G, et al. Endoscopic third ventriculostomy in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus: an Italian multicenter study. Neurosurgery. 2008;63(1):62–7 discussion 7-9.
Longatti PL, Fiorindi A, Martinuzzi A. Failure of endoscopic third ventriculostomy in the treatment of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Minim Invasive Neurosurg. 2004;47(6):342–5.
Tudor KI, Tudor M, McCleery J, Car J. Endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) for idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;7(7):CD010033.
Benzel EC, Pelletier AL, Levy PG. Communicating hydrocephalus in adults: prediction of outcome after ventricular shunting procedures. Neurosurgery. 1990;26(4):655–60.
Raftopoulos C, Massager N, Baleriaux D, Deleval J, Clarysse S, Brotchi J. Prospective analysis by computed tomography and long-term outcome of 23 adult patients with chronic idiopathic hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery. 1996;38(1):51–9.
Kahlon B, Sjunnesson J, Rehncrona S. Long-term outcome in patients with suspected normal pressure hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery. 2007;60(2):327–32 discussion 32.
Shaw R, Mahant N, Jacobson E, Owler B. A review of clinical outcomes for gait and other variables in the surgical treatment of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Movement Disorders Clinical Practice. 2016;3(4):331–41.
Pujari S, Kharkar S, Metellus P, Shuck J, Williams MA, Rigamonti D. Normal pressure hydrocephalus: long-term outcome after shunt surgery. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2008;79(11):1282–6.
Peterson KA, Housden CR, Killikelly C, DeVito EE, Keong NC, Savulich G, et al. Apathy, ventriculomegaly and neurocognitive improvement following shunt surgery in normal pressure hydrocephalus. Br J Neurosurg. 2016;30(1):38–42.
Shaw R, Everingham E, Mahant N, Jacobson E, Owler B. Clinical outcomes in the surgical treatment of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. J Clin Neurosci. 2016;29:81–6.
Klinge P, Hellstrom P, Tans J, Wikkelso C. European i NPHMSG. One-year outcome in the European multicentre study on iNPH. Acta Neurol Scand. 2012;126(3):145–53.
Klinge P, Marmarou A, Bergsneider M, Relkin N, Black PM. Outcome of shunting in idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus and the value of outcome assessment in shunted patients. Neurosurgery. 2005;57(3 Suppl):S40–52; discussion ii-v.
Marmarou A, Young HF, Aygok GA, Sawauchi S, Tsuji O, Yamamoto T, et al. Diagnosis and management of idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus: a prospective study in 151 patients. J Neurosurg. 2005;102(6):987–97.
Ferrazzoli D, Ortelli P, Zivi I, Cian V, Urso E, Ghilardi MF, et al. Efficacy of intensive multidisciplinary rehabilitation in Parkinson's disease: a randomised controlled study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2018;89(8):828–35.
Pitkala KH, Raivio MM, Laakkonen ML, Tilvis RS, Kautiainen H, Strandberg TE. Exercise rehabilitation on home-dwelling patients with Alzheimer's disease--a randomized, controlled trial. Study protocol Trials. 2010;11:92.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
Albert M. Isaacs receives financial support as a graduate student from the Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship and, recently from the Killam Predoctoral Scholarship programs.
Michael A. Williams currently is a recipient of a research grant from NASA on research on intracranial pressure. In 2017, Dr. Williams received honoraria and paid travel costs from Medtronic Inc. for preparation of independently developed lectures on hydrocephalus, which was presented at Neurosciences Grand Rounds, University of University of Saskatchewan College of Medicine. Dr. Williams is the Chair of the Medical Advisor board of the Hydrocephalus Association (HA). Dr. Williams is a member of the Board of Directors of the HA.
Mark G. Hamilton is a member of the Board of Directors of the HA. Dr. Hamilton received honoraria from Integra (Canada) Inc. for preparation of an independently developed seminar on adult hydrocephalus. Dr. Hamilton is the Chair of the Adult Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network (AHCRN), Vice-Chair of the Medical Advisor board of the Hydrocephalus Association (HA) and a member of the Board of Directors of Hydrocephalus Canada.
Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This article is part of the Topical Collection on Dementia
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Isaacs, A.M., Williams, M.A. & Hamilton, M.G. Current Update on Treatment Strategies for Idiopathic Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus. Curr Treat Options Neurol 21, 65 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-019-0604-z
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-019-0604-z