Abstract
The interior evolution of Mercury—the innermost planet in the solar system, with its exceptional high density—is poorly known. Our current knowledge of Mercury is based on observations from Mariner 10’s three flybys. That knowledge includes the important discoveries of a weak, active magnetic field and a system of lobate scarps that suggests limited radial contraction of the planet during the last 4 billion years. We review existing models of Mercury’s interior evolution and further present new 2D and 3D convection models that consider both a strongly temperature-dependent viscosity and core cooling. These studies provide a framework for understanding the basic characteristics of the planet’s internal evolution as well as the role of the amount and distribution of radiogenic heat production, mantle viscosity, and sulfur content of the core have had on the history of Mercury’s interior.
The existence of a dynamo-generated magnetic field suggests a growing inner core, as model calculations show that a thermally driven dynamo for Mercury is unlikely. Thermal evolution models suggest a range of possible upper limits for the sulfur content in the core. For large sulfur contents the model cores would be entirely fluid. The observation of limited planetary contraction (∼1–2 km)—if confirmed by future missions—may provide a lower limit for the core sulfur content. For smaller sulfur contents, the planetary contraction obtained after the end of the heavy bombardment due to inner core growth is larger than the observed value. Due to the present poor knowledge of various parameters, for example, the mantle rheology, the thermal conductivity of mantle and crust, and the amount and distribution of radiogenic heat production, it is not possible to constrain the core sulfur content nor the present state of the mantle. Therefore, it is difficult to robustly predict whether or not the mantle is conductive or in the convective regime. For instance, in the case of very inefficient planetary cooling—for example, as a consequence of a strong thermal insulation by a low conductivity crust and a stiff Newtonian mantle rheology—the predicted sulfur content can be as low as 1 wt% to match current estimates of planetary contraction, making deep mantle convection likely. Efficient cooling—for example, caused by the growth of a crust strongly in enriched in radiogenic elements—requires more than 6.5 wt% S. These latter models also predict a transition from a convective to a conductive mantle during the planet’s history. Data from future missions to Mercury will aid considerably our understanding of the evolution of its interior.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
M.H. Acuña, J.E.P. Connerney, N.F. Ness, R.P. Lin, D. Mitchell, C.W. Carlson, J. McFadden, K.A. Anderson, H. Rème, C. Mazelle, D. Vignes, P. Wasilewski, P. Cloutier, Science 284, 790–793 (1999)
O. Aharonson, M.T. Zuber, S.C. Solomon, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 218, 261–268 (2004)
J.D. Anderson, R.F. Jurgens, E.L. Lau, M.A. Slade, III, G. Schubert, Icarus 124, 690–697 (1996)
J.D. Anderson, G. Colombo, P.B. Esposito, E.L. Lau, G.B. Trager, Icarus 71, 337–349 (1987)
J. Baker, M. Bizzarro, N. Wittig, J. Connelly, H. Haack, Nature 436, 1127 (2005)
Basaltic Volcanism Study Project, Basaltic Volcanism on the Terrestrial Planets (Pergamon, New York, 1981), 1286 pp
V. Belleguic, P. Lognonné, M.A. Wieczorek, J. Geophys. Res. 110, E11005 (2005), doi:10.1029/2005JE002437
C.M. Bertka, J.R. Holloway, J. Geophys. Res. 98, 19,755–19,766 (1993)
A.B. Binder, M.A. Lange, J. Geophys. Res. 85, 3194–3208 (1980)
R. Boehler, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 111, 217–227 (1992)
R. Boehler, Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 96, 181–186 (1996)
S.I. Braginsky, Geomag. Aeron. 4, 698–712 (1964)
D. Breuer, Thermo-chemical evolution of Mercury, EPSC 2006, Berlin, Germany, Sept. 18th–22th, Talk EPSC2006-A-00755, 2006
D. Breuer, T. Spohn, J. Geophys. Res.-Planets 108(E7), 5072 (2003). doi:10.1029/20002JE001999
D. Breuer, T. Spohn, Planet. Space Sci. 54, 153–169 (2006)
A.G.W. Cameron, Jr. B. Fegley, W. Benz, W.L. Slattery, in Mercury, ed. by F. Vilas et al. (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1988), pp. 692–708
C. Christensen, Nature 444, 1056–1058 (2006)
C. Clauser, E. Huenges, Thermal Conductivity of Rocks and Minerals, Rock Physics and Phase Relations, A Handbook of Physical Constants. AGU Reference Shelf 3, 1995
S.M. Clifford, F.P. Fanale, Lunar Planet. Sci. XVI 144–145 (1985)
J.E.P. Connerney, N.F. Ness, in Mercury (Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1988), pp. 494–513
V. Conzelmann, Thermische Evolution des Planeten Merkur berechnet unter Anwendung verschiedener Viskositätsgesetze, Ph.D. Thesis, University Münster, 1999
A.C. Cook, M.S. Robinson, J. Geophys. Res. 105 9429–9443 (2000)
B.M. Cordell, Tectonism and the interior of Mercury, Ph.D. thesis, University of Arizona, Tucson, 1977, 124 pp
B.M. Cordell, R.G. Strom, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 15 146–155 (1977)
A. Davaille, C. Jaupart, J. Fluid Mech. 253 141–166 (1993)
B. Fegley Jr., A.G.W. Cameron, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 82 207–222 (1987)
Y. Fei, C.M. Bertka, L.W. Finger, Science 275 1621–1623 (1997)
Y. Fei, J. Li, C.M. Bertka, C.T. Prewitt, Am. Mineral. 85 1830–1833 (2000)
P.E. Fricker, R.T. Reynolds, A.L. Summers, P.M. Cassen, Nature 259 293–294 (1976)
G. Giampieri, A. Balogh, Planet. Space Sci. 50 757–762 (2002)
R. Grard, A. Balogh, Planet. Space Sci. 49 1395–1407 (2001)
O. Grasset, E.M. Parmentier, J. Geophys. Res. 103 18,171–18,181 (1998)
L. Grossman, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 36, 597–619 (1972)
B.H. Hager, R.W. Clayton, in Mantle Convection: Plate Tectonics and Global Dynamics, ed. by W.R. Peltier (Gordon and Breach, New York, 1989), pp. 675–763
H. Harder, G. Schubert, Icarus 151, 118–122 (2001)
J.K. Harmon, Adv. Space Res., 19, 1487–1496 (1997)
S.A. Hauck II, A.J. Dombard, R.J. Phillips, S.C. Solomon, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 222, 713–728 (2004)
S.A. Hauck III, R.J. Phillips, J. Geophys. Res. 107, 5052 (2002). doi:5010.1029/2001JE001801
M.H. Heimpel, J.M. Aurnou, F.M. Al-Shamali, N. Gomez Perez, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 236, 542–557 (2005)
C.T. Herzberg, P. Raterron, J. Zhang, Geophys. Geochem. Geosyst. 1 (2000). doi:10.129/2000GC000089
M.M. Hirschmann, Geophys. Geochem. Geosyst. 1 (2000). doi:10.129/2000GC000070
A.M. Hofmeister, Science 283(5408), 1699 (1999)
R. Jeanloz, D.L. Mitchell, A.L. Sprague, I. de Pater, Science 268, 1455–1457 (1995)
S. Karato, D.C. Rubie, J. Geophys. Res. 102, 20111–20122 (1997)
S.-I. Karato, P. Wu, Science 260, 771–778 (1993)
H.H. Kieffer, Science 194, 1344–1346 (1976)
T. Kleine, C. Münker, K. Mezger, H. Palme, Nature 418, 952–955 (2002)
T. Kleine, K. Mezger, H. Palme, E. Scherer, C. Munker, AGU, Fall Meeting 2004, Abstract P31C-04, 2004
S. Labrosse, Phys. Earth Planet. Interiors 140, 127–143 (2003)
T. Lee, D.A. Papanastassiou, G.J. Wasserburg, Geophys. Res. Lett. 3, 109–112 (1976)
J.S. Lewis, Science 186, 440–443 (1972)
J.S. Lewis, in Mercury, ed. by F. Vilas et al. (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1988), pp. 651–666
K. Lodders, B. Fegley Jr., The Planetary Scientist’s Companion (Oxford University Press, New York, 1998), 371 pp
J.L. Margot, S.J. Peale, R.F. Jurgens, M.A. Slade, I.V. Holin, Science 316, 710–714 (2007)
C.A. McCammon, A.E. Ringwood, I. Jackson, Geophys. J. Roy. Astron. Soc. 72, 577–595 (1983)
M.K. McNutt, J. Geophys. Res. 89, 11180–11194 (1984)
L.-N. Moresi, V.S. Solomatov, Phys. Fluids 7, 2154–2162 (1995)
N.F. Ness, K.W. Behannon, R.P. Lepping, Y.C. Whang, K.H. Schatten, Science 185, 151–160 (1974)
N.F. Ness, K.W. Behannon, R.P. Lepping, Y.C. Whang, Icarus 28, 479–488 (1976)
F. Nimmo, D. Stevenson, J. Geophys. Res. 105, 11969–11979 (2000)
F. Nimmo, T.R. Watters, Geophys. Res. Lett. 31, L02701 (2004)
M. Pauer, O. Fleming, K. Čadek, J. Geophys. Res. 111(E11), E1100 (2006). doi:10.1029/2005JE002511
M. Pauer, D. Breuer, T. Spohn, Subsurface structure of Mercury—Expected results from gravity/topography analyses (2007, submitted)
S.J. Peale, in Mercury, ed. by F. Vilas et al. (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1988), pp. 494–513
C.C. Reese, V.S. Solomatov, L.N. Moresi, J. Geophys. Res. 103, 13643–13658 (1998)
C.C. Reese, V.S. Solomatov, L.-N. Moresi, Icarus 139, 67–80 (1999)
F.M. Richter, H.C. Nataf, S.F. Daly, J. Fluid Mech. 129, 183 (1983)
A.E. Ringwood, Geochem. J. 11, 111–135 (1977)
M.S. Robinson, M.E. Davies, T.R. Colvin, K.E. Edwards, J. Geophys. Res. 104, 30 (1999)
M.S. Robinson, G.J. Taylor, Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 36, 841–847 (2001)
S.K. Runcorn, Nature 253, 701–703 (1975)
C.T. Russel, D.N. Baker, J.A. Slavin, in Mercury, ed. by F. Vilas, C.R. Chapman, M.S. Matthews (Univ. Press of Arizona, Tucson, 1988), pp. 514–561
G. Schubert, M.N. Ross, D.J. Stevenson, T. Spohn, in Mercury, ed. by F. Vilas et al. (Univ. Press of Arizona, Tucson, 1988), pp. 429–460
G. Schubert, D. Bercovici, G.A. Glatzmeier, J. Geophys. Res. 95, 14105–14129 (1990)
G. Schubert, S.C. Solomon, D.L. Turcotte, M.J. Drake, N.H. Sleep, in Mars, ed. by H.H. Kieffer, B.M. Jakobsky, C.W. Snyder, M.S. Matthews (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1992), pp. 147–183
G. Schubert, D.L. Turcotte, P. Olson, Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001), 956 pp
S. Schumacher, D. Breuer, J. Geophys. Res. 111, E02006 (2006). doi:10.1029/2005JE002429
B.E. Schwab, A.D. Johnston, J. Petrol. 42, 1789–1811 (2001)
U. Seipold, Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 69(3–4), 299-303 (1992)
H.N. Sharpe, D.W. Strangway, Geophys. Res. Lett. 3, 285–288 (1976)
R.W. Siegfried, S.C. Solomon, Icarus 23, 192–205 (1974)
D.E. Smith, M.T. Zuber, G.A. Neumann, F.G. Lemoine, J. Geophys. Res. 102, 1591–1611 (1997)
V.S. Solomatov, Phys. Fluids 7, 266–274 (1995)
V.S. Solomatov, L.-N. Moresi, J. Geophys. Res. 105, 21795–21817 (2000)
V.S. Solomatov, C.C. Reese, Mantle convection and thermal evolution of Mercury reviseted, in LPI Conference Mercury: Space Environment, Surface, and Interior, Chicago, 2001
S.C. Solomon, Icarus 28, 509–521 (1976)
S.C. Solomon, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 15, 135–145 (1977)
S.C. Solomon, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 19, 168–182 (1979)
S.C. Solomon, R.L. McNutt Jr., R.E. Gold, M.H. Acuña, D.N. Baker, W.V. Boynton, C.R. Chapman, A.F. Cheng, G. Gloeckler, J.W. Head III, S.M. Krimigis, W.E. McClintock, S.L. Murchie, S.J. Peale, R.J. Phillips, M.S. Robinson, J.A. Slavin, D.E. Smith, R.G. Strom, J.I. Trombka, M.T. Zuber, Planet. Space Sci. 49, 1445–1465 (2001)
C.P. Sonett, D.S. Colburn, K. Schwartz, Icarus 24, 231–255 (1975)
T. Spohn, F. Sohl, K. Wieczerkowski, V. Conzelmann, Planet. Space Sci. 49, 1561–1570 (2001)
T. Spohn, Icarus 90, 222–236 (1991)
A.L. Sprague, R.W.H. Kozlowski, F.C. Witteborn, D.P. Cruikshank, D.H. Wooden, Icarus 109, 156–167 (1994)
A.L. Sprague, D.B. Nash, F.C. Witteborn, D.P. Cruikshank, Adv. Space Res. 19, 1507–1510 (1997)
P.D. Spudis, J.E. Guest, in Mercury, ed. by F. Vilas et al. (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1988), pp. 118–164
S. Stanley, J. Bloxham, W.E. Hutchinson, M.T. Zuber, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 234, 27–38 (2005)
D.J. Stevenson, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 82, 114–120 (1987)
D.J. Stevenson, in Origin of the Earth, ed. by H.E. Newsom, J.H. Jones (Oxford University Press, New York, 1990), pp. 231–249
D.J. Stevenson, T. Spohn, G. Schubert, Icarus 54, 466–489 (1983)
R.G. Strom, Adv. Space Res. 19, 1471–1485 (1997)
R.G. Strom, N.J. Trask, J.E. Guest, J. Geophys. Res. 80, 2478–2507 (1975)
G.J. Taylor, E.R.D. Scott, in Treatise on Geochemistry, vol. 1, Meteorites, Comets and Planets, ed. by M.A. Davis (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2005), pp. 477–485
M.N. Toksöz, A.T. Hsui, D.H. Johnston, Thermal evolution of the Moon and the terrestrial planets, in The Soviet–American Conference on Cosmochemistry of the Moon and Planets, NASA SP-370, 1978, pp. 245–328
D.C. Tozer, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 258, 252–271 (1965)
T.M. Usselman, Am. J. Sci. 275, 278–290 (1975)
T. VanHoolst, F. Sohl, I. Holin, O. Verhoeven, V. Dehant, T. Spohn (2007), this issue
F. Vilas, in Mercury, ed. by F. Vilas, C.R. Chapman, M.S. Matthews (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1988), pp. 622–650
T.R. Watters, M.S. Robinson, A.C. Cook, Geology 26, 991–994 (1998)
T.R. Watters, R.A. Schultz, M.S. Robinson, A.C. Cook, Geophys. Res. Lett. 29(11), 1542 (2002). doi:10.1029/2001GL014308
T.R. Watters, M.S. Robinson, C.R. Bina, P.D. Spudis, Geophys. Res. Lett. 31, 04701 (2004)
T.R. Watters, F. Nimmo, M.S. Robinson, Geology 33(8), 669–672 (2005). doi:10.1130/G21678.1
J. Weertman, J.R. Weertman, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 3, 293–315 (1975)
S.J. Weidenschilling, Icarus 35, 99–111 (1978)
G.W. Wetherill, Science 228, 877–879 (1985)
G.W. Wetherill, in Mercury, ed. by F. Vilas et al. (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1988), pp. 670–691
J. Wicht, M. Mandea, F. Takahashi, U.R. Christensen, M. Matsushima, B. Langlais (2007), this issue
A. Zebib, G. Schubert, J.L. Dein, R.C. Paliwal, Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn. 23, 1–42 (1983)
J. Zhang, C. Herzberg, J. Geophys. Res. 99, 17,729–17,742 (1994)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Breuer, D., Hauck, S.A., Buske, M. et al. Interior Evolution of Mercury. Space Sci Rev 132, 229–260 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-007-9228-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-007-9228-9