Abstract
Major concerns after aortic aneurysm repair are caused by the presence of endoleaks, which are defined as persistent perigraft flow within the aortic aneurysm sac. Diagnosis of endoleaks can be performed with various imaging modalities, and indications for treatment are based on further subclassifications. Early detection and correct classification of endoleaks are crucial for planning patient management. The vast majority of endoleaks can be treated successfully by interventional means. Guidelines for Imaging Detection and Treatment of endoleaks are described in this article.
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Introduction
With the increasing use of endovascular repair of aneurysms (EVAR), the need for pre- and posttreatment imaging is deemed an essential part of the overall patient management. A major concern after aortic aneurysm repair is the presence of endoleaks, which are defined as persistent perigraft flow within the aortic aneurysm sac. Endoleaks represent the most common complication of EVAR with an incidence of 10–50 % [1–9]. Anatomical factors that might increase the risk of endoleaks should be assessed by imaging techniques before EVAR, and interventional techniques optimized during device deployment to prevent or minimize subsequent endoleaks.
Depending on the type and persistency of endoleaks, further enlargement and rupture of the aneurysm sac may occur. Therefore, it is vital to evaluate carefully the follow-up imaging, with correct classification of any endoleaks so that the most appropriate management is instigated. Once detected, endoleaks that require treatment are managed predominantly by endovascular techniques.
Definitions
Endoleak
Endoleak (EL) is a common complication of endovascular aortic repair (EVAR). It is defined as a persistent blood flow outside the endograft but within the aneurysm sac [10–13]. It is the most frequent complication of EVAR [12], although its consequences differ widely, depending on the type of EL. Five different types of endoleaks have been described [5]. Treatment and prognosis depend on the type of EL (Table 1) [8, 13–19].
Type I EL
Type I endoleak is defined as a leak at the attachment site of an endograft, and a manifestation of sealing failure. Type I ELs are further subclassified in type IA, IB, and IC depending on the occurrence at proximal and distal end of the endograft, or iliac occluder, respectively. The incidence of type IA proximal endoleak increases in anatomically difficult situations, such as short (<15 mm) neck, large neck diameter (>32 mm), tapered necks, increased angulations (>60°) and landing zones with calcification, thrombus, or uneven size [5]. Incidence of type I endoleak has been reported in as many as 10 % of EVAR cases [5]. Type I endoleaks increase with time from 3.5 % at 30 days to 6.8 % at 12 months [20].
Type I EL is associated with a significant pressure increase in the aneurysm sac and treatment always should be considered.
Type II EL
Type II EL are branch endoleaks and involve retrograde flow into the aneurysm sac from aortic or iliac branch arteries, such as intercostal, lumbar, inferior mesenteric, hypogastric, arteries. They are further differentiated into type IIA when they are related to only one patent branch and type IIB when they are complex with two or more patent branches and creating a flow-through situation. Type II ELs account for approximately 40 % of all endoleaks and are reported in 20–30 % of EVAR cases at 30 days, 18.9 % at 1 year, and 10 % beyond 1 year [5]. Fifty percent of type II ELs resolve spontaneously, 10–15 % are persistent on long-term follow-up, and new type II endoleaks develop in 5–10 % [3, 4, 21, 22].
Type III EL
Type III EL are defined as a junctional leak or modular disconnection (IIIA) or fabric disruption with midgraft holes (IIIB). Like type I endoleaks, type III endoleaks are considered high-pressure, high-risk leaks and always warrant urgent management. Type III endoleaks are infrequent with an estimated incidence of 4 % beyond 1 year [5]. They generally manifest as large collections of contrast, centrally located in the aneurysm sac and usually distant from landing sites (Table 2). Fabric tears can be hard to detect, but modular disconnections usually are well seen with computed tomography (CT).
Type IV EL
Type IV EL are defined as a porous endograft, which is detected <30 days after graft placement, due to fabric porosity. They present at the time of the operation on completion aortograms, when patients are fully anticoagulated. By definition, an endoleak noted on follow-up imaging should not be considered a type IV endoleak.
Type V EL
Type V EL refers to the phenomenon of endotension, which represents a persistent or recurrent pressurization of an aneurysm sac without an identifiable type I–IV endoleak on imaging. This may be due to such slow blood flow that it is below the sensitivity limits for detection on current imaging methods. Other alternative explanations that have been suggested for this phenomenon include the development of seroma, infections, and pulsation of the graft wall and thrombus with transmission of the pulse wave through the perigraft space to the native aneurysm wall or by ultrafiltrate across the porous fabric of the endograft. Therefore, endotension may be related to the graft design, including stent structure and fabric compliance (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4).
Type 1b (distal) endoleak at the left distal limb before (A, B) and after (C) endovascular repair (DSA)
Type 2 endoleak at contrast-enhanced CT
Type 3 disconnection leak at the right limb, before (A) and after (B) endovascular repair (DSA)
Type 5 (endotension) endoleak. No evidence of extravasation into the increased aneurysmal sac (A). Direct puncture (B) revealed a serous, slightly hemorrhagic content (C). Courtesy of Lammer J, Vienna, Austria
Further Definitions
Time of detection On the basis of the time of first detection endoleaks can appear perioperative (first 24 h), early (1–90 days after EVAR), and late (>90 days after EVAR) [1].
Intrasac pressure Endoleaks may be associated with a persistent or recurrent systemic pressure in the aneurysm sac. Intra-aneurysm sac pressure measurements have been performed by invasive techniques post-EVAR; however, with the availability of newer technologies, it may be possible to do this noninvasively in the future [23–25].
Sac expansion is defined as an increase of >5 mm in the maximum sac diameter during the interval between successive follow-up imaging [20].
Imaging of Endoleaks
Surveillance is necessary in all patients who undergo EVAR. The frequency of follow-up imaging varies between different centers. Multislice computed tomography (MSCT) and DSA are considered the most accurate imaging techniques for the detection and classification of endoleaks. Most institutions utilize serial CT angiography (CTA) follow-up following EVAR, and a typical protocol is for CTA to be performed at 30 days, 6 months, and annually thereafter [19].
Surveillance should include plain film and/or one type of cross sectional imaging, including 3D reconstructions. Most units continue lifelong surveillance. However, surveillance increases costs by nearly 50 % of the EVAR procedure and 65 % of this due to CT. This also results in a high radiation dose to patients. The vast majority of complications present within 3 years of the initial EVAR [26], and therefore, it has been advocated by some authors that in the absence of complications at 3 years, patients might be discharged [27]. Surveillance protocols are undergoing reevaluation and change in many centers: the 6-month CT scans is being eliminated increasingly, the need for long-term surveillance versus selective surveillance has not been determined, and alternative methods, such as contrast duplex ultrasound (CDU) are being introduced increasingly as an alternative to CT.
Computed Tomography
The current standard for imaging surveillance after EVAR is MSCT. It yields a high sensitivity and specificity for complications following EVAR, including EL detection; however, it is not as specific as DSA for endoleak classification, because CTA has a limited ability to determine blood flow direction, which is critical for endoleak classification [28]. Perigraft flow is seen as a collection of contrast material located anywhere between the aortic wall and the stent-graft. The detection of a small collection in the proximity of metal or calcification, with a similar high attenuation as contrast material may be difficult. When using CT as the primary imaging method, protocols should be optimized to achieve the highest quality imaging while minimizing the dose to the patient [27]. Protocols should be defined to minimize radiation dose. Minimum protocol is a single arterial phase study. A delayed phase study is of value in those patients with enlarging sacs with no cause on the arterial phase. One alternative technique involves splitting the bolus so that one part is given at a delay before the CT and the other just before, so that the CT is arterial phase but with the benefit of the equivalent of a late phase study. Delayed phase images after contrast injection are helpful to differentiate progressive aneurysm expansion due to low-flow endoleak from endotension. The unenhanced phase rarely contributes to the diagnosis and should be omitted whenever possible. Standard techniques comprise the use of MSCT scanners.
Technical parameters will vary depending on the type and make of the scanner within each unit. With the use of MSCT, 3D imaging reconstructions can be performed [28–30] to classify and to help localize the site of endoleaks. For a 64 MSCT, the following parameters are suggested in Table 3.
Color Duplex Ultrasound and Contrast-enhanced Ultrasound
Avoidance of ionizing radiation and potentially nephrotoxic contrast agent administration are the main advantages of color duplex ultrasound (CDU) compared with CTA. CDU also offers the additional advantage to document flow velocity and direction in the aneurysm sac, thus providing dynamic information. Using US contrast media can improve the sensitivity and specificity of CDU [31–33]. Furthermore, it can be used for the guidance of percutaneous treatment or ELs [34].
Several recent studies also have shown superior results of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) compared with CTA for the detection and classification of endoleaks. However, these results must be interpreted with caution, because the quality of CDU imaging may be affected by several factors, including patient habitus, bowel gas, and the skill of the operator [28, 32]. CTA cannot currently be completely substituted, because it enables a more precise evaluation of aneurysm morphologic changes, aneurysm sac diameter, graft anchorage, and integrity.
Some investigators have recommended that if no endoleak or sac enlargement is detected on the first-year follow-up CT, CDU should be used as the sole follow-up imaging modality following EVAR. Detection of a new onset endoleak or sac enlargement by CDU would prompt further CT imaging [35, 36]. CDU and CEUS also can be used along with CTA when the latter reveals the presence of endoleak to provide a better characterization of this taking advantage of the angiodynamic behavior of the contrast agent. It also may be useful when there is an increase in the aneurysm sac diameter with a negative CTA to show sac reperfusion or to monitor type II endoleaks, thereby reducing the need for CTA with consequent reduction of costs and exposure to radiation.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used less commonly in clinical practice for endoleak detection after EVAR. Although the sensitivity of gadolinium enhanced MRI might be superior to CT for detection of type II ELs, image quality and interpretation is decreased by significant artefacts, coming from the device itself or other sources [37, 38]. MRI with new blood pool contrast agents with longer serum half-life can help to image patients with nonshrinking aneurysms due to endoleaks that are occult on CTA [38]. Further studies and MRI compatible stent-grafts are required to define the exact role of MRI for surveillance after EVAR.
Angiography
CTA and CDU are routinely used methods to detect endoleaks after EVAR. However, DSA may still be required to determine the type and source of an already detected EL after CT evaluation [5]. ELs occurring in the distal sealing zones (IB) may be confused with type II ELs. Balloon blockage techniques and selective angiography can clearly differentiate ELs, if such problems arise. Aortography performed with the diagnostic catheter placed above and within the endograft permit exclusion of a type IA proximal EL vs. type II EL. Additionally, selective angiography of the superior mesenteric and the hypogastric arteries can be assessed to identify collateral pathways to inferior mesenteric and lumbar arteries, respectively, as a prelude to treatment of the EL with embolization during the same session in suitable cases. If the EL cannot be visualized angiographically via a transarterial approach, direct translumbar puncture of the sac percutaneously, can be performed [5, 6].
Plain Radiography
Although they do not image endoleaks directly, plain radiographs (anteroposterior and lateral projections) are very accurate to assess migration, stent fractures, and modular separations, which may result in type I and III endoleaks [12].
Indications for Treatment of ELs
Secondary interventions are performed following EVAR in 16.2 % of patients most commonly due to endoleak (Table 4) [20, 27, 39–58]. Type I EL is associated with significant pressure increase in the sac and constitutes a high risk for continued aneurysm expansion and rupture. Therefore, type I ELs are considered clinically significant and should be treated quickly upon detection.
For type II endoleaks, a “wait and see” approach is accepted with regular follow-up for stable aneurysms, because up to 50 % of these endoleaks will eventually thrombose spontaneously [12, 40]. If there is an increase in size of the aneurysm sac, this is indicative of high sac pressure and the endoleak should be treated. There is currently no defined increase in size in the literature at which intervention is recommended, but in the authors practice we use a >5-mm increase in size.
Type III ELs should be treated upon detection. An additional covered extension cuff at the level of the leak is required. Type IV EL represents self-limiting blood flow through the graft material due to porosity and treatment is not usually required. Type V ELs are treated individually. Invasive pressure monitoring may be a useful adjunct; however, treatment of type V ELs is not defined. The risk of rupture from combined types I and III endoleaks is reported to be ten times of that of type II endoleaks (Table 5).
Patient Preparation
The majority of cases can be treated endovascularly (82 %) with only a minority requiring surgery (18 %) [3]. In case of a strictly endovascular procedure, patient preparation and management is the same as for any standard endovascular procedure. Where a formal cut down is required, the preparation is as for any surgical case. Prophylactic antibiotics for secondary interventions are advisable, although there is no convincing evidence of benefit for the prevention of infection in the literature.
Procedural Features
Good patient planning with appropriate patient and device selection and adherence to high standards in technique should minimize the development of endoleaks that require treatment.
Type I El
Immediate type I EL may be treated by balloon remodelling or the use of various extender cuffs or other modular devices, such as bare stents [5, 19]. Delayed type I ELs might occur with changes in the configuration of the aorta or graft migration. These ELs can be managed by placement of an extension cuff if any additional landing zone exists, which gives an additional coverage at the end of the stent graft or balloon angioplasty and placement of bare stents to increase the radial strength to the sealing zones. Rarely obliteration of the lumen with coils, glue, thrombin, or other embolic agents, such as N-BCA (Trufill, Cordis, Miami, FL) “glue” or Onyx (ev3, Plymouth, MN) is performed [59, 60]. In these approaches, the graft is probed from the femoral or brachial artery with a curved catheter, i.e., SOS Omni (AngioDynamics). After the tip of the catheter has engaged the channel of the leak, a microcatheter can be advanced and embolization performed by using a variety of agents [5, 59]. In case of failure of endovascular techniques to control type I EL, conversion to open surgery may be the only option.
Type II EL
Common sources for type II ELs are arterial branches that are prone to retrograde flow after having being covered by a stent-graft. Therefore, careful CTA evaluation of vessels should be performed during the planning phase of EVAR cases to reduce the risk of type II ELs. To prevent endoleaks caused by retrograde flow when coverage of the internal iliac arteries (IIA) is indicated due to combined iliac artery aneurysm, occlusion of the internal iliac artery is commonly performed with transarterial embolization using metallic coils or nitinol occlusion plugs. Embolization should involve only the proximal part of the IIA, preserving the branches for collateral circulation. Bilateral IIA occlusions should be avoided if possible, because of the potential risk of ischemic complications, although such complications have been shown to be far less morbid than previously thought [60, 61].
Prominent lumbar arteries or a prominent IMA may be preevaluated as a potential source of ELs and can be embolized by coils prior stent-graft insertion [62–64]. No overall significant reduction in endoleak occurrence has been demonstrated, and pre-EVAR embolization is not generally recommended [65].
In case of type II ELs associated with continuous increase of the size of the aneurysm sac detected in the course of follow-ups after stent-graft insertion, translumbar and transarterial embolization techniques are effective [1, 5]. The use of microcatheters and embolization of the feeding and draining arteries with coils is one method. These procedures can be rather time-consuming and can require advanced technical skills. Also, catheterization and successful embolization may not be possible in all patients because of anatomic limitations. To prevent recurrences after embolization, entering the aneurysm sac with a microcatheter and embolization of both the channels in the sac and the feeding/draining vessels is advised. Clear anatomic background and the knowledge of vessel anatomy are mandatory.
Leaks from lumbar arteries may be treated via catheterization of the hypogastric arteries. Leaks from the IMA may be treated by a passage from the SMA via collaterals (Riolan Anastomosis). Laparoscopic retroperitoneal ligation of the IMA or the lumbar arteries may be used, as an alternate option for treatment of type II endoleaks [66, 67]. However, it requires advanced laparoscopic experience and is more invasive than embolization techniques.
If the endoleak cannot be reached by endovascular route, translumbar embolization with direct puncture of the aneurysm sac can be performed with a percutaneous approach [34, 68, 69]. It can be performed under CT, fluoroscopy, or ultrasound guidance. A 18- to 22-gauge needle is inserted directly into the aneurysm sac with imaging guidance (US and/or CT) and then the embolization is performed by using embolic agents, such as coils, glue, thrombin, and/or onyx (see equipment) [5, 70, 71].
Type III EL
Extreme angulation of the neck or iliac segments increases the risk of type III endoleaks. Most fabric failures have been found to be associated with specific graft designs and materials that have subsequently been modified or withdrawn from the market. Some failures related to modular separation are preventable by ensuring adequate overlap of modular elements of the graft. Existing type III ELs are treated by placement of additional extensions or cuffs. When endoleak is due to perforation of the fabric, relining of the entire stent graft with a new bifurcated one or converting to aortouniiliac graft with femoro-femoral cross-over bypass graft and deployment of an occluder to the contralateral side can be performed. Solitary limb tears may be treated by relining of the individual limb only. If these techniques fail to treat the leak, surgical conversion is the final treatment option.
Type IV EL
Type IV endoleaks have been described particularly with the first generation of stent-grafts; however, with new generation low-porosity graft fabrics, these endoleaks are uncommon.
Type V EL
Endotension seemed more common with expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) fabric grafts rather than polyester covered ones. New-generation ePTFE grafts include a second layer of low permeability ePTFE to decrease this risk [72]. Usually endotension is considered a low-risk complication of EVAR in the short-term; however, continued enlargement of the sac usually requires surgical conversion, although relining of the entire stent-graft also has been attempted.
Medication and Periprocedural Care
Where a larger access to the groin is essential with surgical cut downs, to deliver proximal or distal cuffs or in case of stent in stent techniques (type I and III ELs), anticoagulation with 3–5,000 U of heparin and antibiotics should be given as an adjunct to the procedure.
Postprocedural Follow-up
DSA will be performed as part of the secondary intervention. If this shows a satisfactory result, then short-term investigations can be skipped and further follow-up imaging should be performed as for primary EVAR with the use of MSCT or other adequate alternative imaging modalities.
Outcome
Effectiveness For the repair of type I and III Els, the described procedures are highly effective, although a small incidence of recurrence is recognized. For type II Els, failure and recurrences have been reported in up to 80 % because of multiple communicating vessels [26, 41–58].
Complications
Potential complications after EL repair resemble those from the individual endovascular technique used. These represent the hazards of embolization techniques for the treatment of type II endoleaks and all hazards of stent displacement for the repair of types I and III ELs using proximal and distal cuffs or stent-in-stent techniques. Other complications are those generally encountered in endovascular therapies, such as puncture-associated bleeding complications, infections, or an inflammatory or thrombotic origin.
Conclusions
Endoleaks are common complications in EVAR. With the introduction of improved techniques and stent-graft designs, the incidence of ELs has been reduced. Type II ELs are still by far the most common type. The vast majority of endoleaks that require treatment can be managed with endovascular techniques with only a minority requiring surgical intervention.
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Rand, T., Uberoi, R., Cil, B. et al. Quality Improvement Guidelines for Imaging Detection and Treatment of Endoleaks following Endovascular Aneurysm Repair (EVAR). Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 36, 35–45 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00270-012-0439-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00270-012-0439-4