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Introduction

The Northwestern Himalayan Region (NWHR) comprises of three states of the Indian Republic viz, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttrakhand. Geographically it spreads between 28o43′-37o05′ N latitude and 72o40′-81o02′ E longitude covering an approximate area of 33 million ha contributing about 10 % of total geographical area of the country. The region occupies the strategic position in the northern boundary of the nation and touches the international borders of Nepal, China, and Pakistan. Most of the area is covered by snow-clad peaks, glaciers of higher Himalaya and dense forest covers of mid-Himalaya. The region comparatively shows a thin and dispersed human population due to its physiographic conditions and poor infrastructure development. The Himalayas exhibit great diversity in climate, landforms, ethnicity, resource availability, and agricultural practices.

The rural population in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttrakhand constitutes 90.2, 75.2, and 74.3 %, respectively, as compared to the national average of 72.2 % (Census of India 2006). Agriculture, including livestock continues to be the dominant sector despite the fact that the area is exposed to adverse and harsh geophysical and agro-climatic conditions. Climate of the region is conducive for growth of a large variety of plants ranging from tropical to temperate due to different altitudinal ranges varying from 100 m above mean sea level (amsl) to more than 4000 m amsl, i.e., subtropical to cold temperate alpine zone. The region is the natural abode of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants and the value of medicinal herbs from forests is enormous. These medicinal resources are harvested as raw material from wild sources and majority comes from Himalayan region, i.e., temperate, subalpine, and alpine zones.

The Himalayan region has unique advantage and competitive edge over the adjoining states in the plains, i.e., Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh due to diverse agro-climatic conditions for cultivation of off-season vegetables, temperate fruits, aromatic rice, and medicinal and aromatic plants, besides the huge potential for organic farming. The Himalayas have also contributed toward the formation of fertile plains. The estimated annual soil loss from northwest Himalaya is approximately 35 million tons, which is estimated to cost around US $32.20 million (VPKAS 2011). The land management operations are predominated by different indigenous agroforestry practices which have proven potential and hold promise in alleviating the poverty of hill people. The region is bestowed with rich natural resources including biodiversity; therefore, an attempt has been made in this chapter to justify the management of these resources through agroforestry which is a viable and most sustainable option for the fragile ecology of the region.

Ecology and General Features

The Western Himalayan region is a part of Hindu Kush Himalayas and is characterized not only by ecological fragility but also by a deep and historical geopolitical sensitivity (Stone 1992). There is considerable variation in climate, physiography, soil, and vegetation between the outer and inner Himalayas. Vegetation largely is controlled by altitude. The Western Himalayas are classified into Lesser Himalayas and the Greater Himalayas. The Lesser Himalayas lie in the north of Shiwalik hills. The mountain ranges in this region are usually 50–100 km wide and 1,000–5,000 m high. Dhauladhar range in Himachal Pradesh, Pir Panjal in Jammu and Kashmir, and Mussoorie in Uttrakhand are some of the important hill ranges. The Western Himalayan region has been divided into four agro-ecological zones (Fig. 2.1) as described in Table 2.1.

Fig. 2.1
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Northwestern Himalayan region with agro-climatic zones

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Table 2.1 Area under different agro-climatic zones of Northwestern Himalayan states
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Climate

The Western Himalayan Region mainly experiences two seasons namely winter and summer. The average summer temperature in the southern foothills is about 30 °C and the average winter temperature is around 18 °C. In the middle Himalayan valleys, the average summer temperature remains around 25 °C while the winters are really cold. On the higher regions of the middle Himalayas, the summer temperature is recorded at around 15–18 °C while the winters are below freezing point. The region above 4,880 m amsl is below freezing point and is permanently covered with snow. During winters, the snowfall is heavy while the summers are much more mild and soothing. The Himalayan alpine climate varies according to the altitude. The climatic conditions change very quickly in the Himalayan region due to change in the altitude. The climate here is very unpredictable and dangerous too. The people in regions of Ladakh and Zanskar situated in the north of main Himalayan range are unaware of the monsoon season as the average annual rainfall is only a few centimeters (in the form of snow precipitation) resulting in very low humidity levels. The region experiences coldest temperatures in the world during winter. Mostly the hill stations of the Western Himalayas like Srinagar, Pahalgam, Shimla, Manali (Kullu valley), Kangra, Dharamshala, Maclodganj, Chamba, and some regions in Uttrakhand like Kumaon and Garhwal experience the monsoon showers.

Natural Resources and Land Use Pattern

An ecosystem-based natural resource management approach is difficult to achieve as many countries in the north from west to east share the resources of this mountain system; whereas Indian Western Himalayan region resources are shared by many Indian states. The Himalayas are full of natural wealth, both renewable and nonrenewable resources. The major natural resources of Western Himalayas are water, forests, floral, and faunal biodiversity; and climate, soil, and ecology are the major determinants of the hill farming systems in different agro-climatic zones for livelihood subsistence.

The conservation of natural resources is not only essential for the food and livelihood security of the Himalayan states but also for the entire country. The hydrological potential of these states consists of vast and rich water resources as glaciers, rivers, and lakes. The high altitude areas of Lesser and Greater Himalayas are covered with glaciers and snow fields and are the origin of number of perennial rivers which heavily drain into Indus and Gangetic basin and form a most fertile Indo-Gangetic plain region of the country known as “food bowl of India.” The hydropower and irrigation potential of these two important rivers is given in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Catchment area (km2) and hydropower potential of different rivers in Himachal Pradesha
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In Uttrakhand 31 natural lakes covering an area of about 300 ha and eight large-sized manmade reservoirs in Tehri and Udham Singh Nagar districts are covering an area of 20,075 ha. The Tehri dam is the largest dam in Uttrakhand followed by Sharda reservoir with 6,880 ha water area and Nanak Sagar reservoir with water area of 4,084 ha is the third largest in the state. These all reservoirs are owned by irrigation department and are used for irrigation purpose to enhance agricultural production. In Himachal Pradesh, the water from Beas and Sutlej rivers has been stored in Pong dam and Bhakra Govind Sagar reservoirs having capacity of 7,290 and 9,621 million cubic meters, respectively for irrigation and power generation. It is major source of irrigation to Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan. The catchment area of Ganga in India is approximately 863 thousand km2 which covers about 26.2 % of the total geographical area of the country particularly of Northern States of Indian Territory and is considered as most fertile region of the world (State Profile Himachal Pradesh 2010).

Forests constitute the major share in the land use of Northwestern Himalayan region covering an area of about 1101, 2023, and 3486 thousand ha in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttarakhand, respectively (Ministry of Agriculture 2009). Forests are the second largest natural renewable resources after water. The forest cover and canopy densities has a major role to maintain the hydrological regime in the region as well as to feed the adjoining plain areas for agricultural production. The very dense forests having canopy density more than 70 % and moderately dense forests having canopy density 40–70 % are generally found in high hill temperate wet and mid-hill subhumid zones of the region making it more humid with large number of natural springs due to deep soil percolation and interception of rain water into the soils of these forests. It also maintains optimum temperature for fruit and off-season vegetable production, conservation of biodiversity in the region and to maintain the hydrological potential of the perennial rivers round the year.

The growing stock of trees outside the forest land (ToF) under agroforestry or social forestry has played significant role to enhance the GDP of the country from 1 to 1.70 % (ICFRE 2010). The tree cover in the region increased significantly during last three decades when ICAR initiated All India Coordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRP–AF) in collaboration with International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya during 1982–1983 and farmers were encouraged to grow fodder trees on the bunds to meet the top-fodder demand during the lean period and timber trees to enhance their farm income and to meet their domestic demand. At present the total area under ToF in the region is 7,815 km2 and total growing stock is 190 million cum (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3 Estimated production of forest resources in northwestern Himalayan region
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The research under AICRP-AF during the last three decades; number of indigenous agroforestry practices and multipurpose trees species (MPTs) are identified in different agro-climatic zones of the states and briefly discussed under various agroforestry systems, and research and development initiatives taken in agroforestry.

The livestock population in the region has increased tremendously during last three decades and is 21.33 million against human population of 29.53 million. In order to feed 21.33 million cattle in Northwestern Himalayan states, 1.35 million tons of fodder are required. The region does not produce adequate fodder and therefore, faces 54 % deficit in green fodder and 34 % deficit in dry fodder. Strategies by planting fodder trees or grasses in the waste/degraded lands which represent 7.9, 9.8, and 11.5 % of geographical area in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttrakhand, respectively are needed for enhancing the fodder production. It is also needed to plant grasses, fodder bushes, and wild fruits on the forest floors to feed the wildlife and migratory shepherd (sheep and goats) during their journey from alpines to the lower hills (VPKAS, 2011). In addition, farm spaces on terrace risers and improved crop production technology coupled with integration of agroforestry, will help in bridging the gap between demand and supply of the fodder.

Amongst other nonrenewable resources are deposits of boron, lead, lithium, coal, chromium, ores of iron, copper, tungsten, zinc, and deposits of building material like limestone, dolomite, and marble. These deposits occur across the length and breadth of the Himalayas cutting across international boundaries. The Himalayas have substantial mineral wealth due to which numbers of cement industries are coming up during last three decades in the region. The Himalayas present a storehouse of biodiversity, where flora and fauna vary extensively with climate diversity from one region to the other and this biodiversity is used for developing new varieties/hybrids in agriculture and horticultural crops to enhance the productivity.

Agriculture

There are several important valleys where intensive agriculture is practiced. These include Kangra and Kullu in Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir valley in Jammu and Kashmir and Doon valley and Babhar and Tarai region in Uttrakhand. In these low hills, agricultural fields are terraced in some parts except plain areas and fruit plantations are raised along with several arable crops, such as paddy, maize, pulses, wheat, oilseeds, potatoes, vegetables, etc. Cultivation is practiced up to 2500 m elevation. The contribution of agriculture and allied sectors to net state domestic product at factor cost (at current prices) in the region ranged between 16.8 and 28.9 % in the region (RBI 2010). The average operational holding in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand are 0.67, 1.07, and 0.95 ha, respectively, against the national average of 1.33 ha. The irrigated area in respective states is 42, 19, and 45 %, respectively of the net area sown (FAI 2010). If we consider only hilly region, these figures are much lower than the plains (Ramakrishna et al. 2000).

The crop production systems prevailing in Northwestern Himalayas are based on cereal crops, vegetables, horticulture under different agroforestry practices. Livestock is the integral part of farming in almost all three western Himalayan states. Wheat (Triticum aestivum/durum), paddy (Oryza sativa), maize (Zea mays), Hordeum vulgare (barley), Elusine coracana (mandua/ragi), Pennisetum typhoides (pearl millet), barnyard millet (Echinochloa crus-galli), oats (Avena sativa), Amaranthus caudatus (ramdana), rice-bean (Vigna umbellata), Fagopyrum esculentum (buckwheat), lentil (Lens culinaris), and soybean (Glycine max) are the major field crops. The major vegetable crops are Knol-khol (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes), cabbage (B. oleracea var capitata), cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis), turnip Brassica rapa), radish (Raphanus sativus), carrot (Daucus carota var. sativa), onion (Allium cepa), pea (Pisum sativum), spinach (Spinacia oleracea), garlic (Allium sativum), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), chillies (Capsicum annuum var. acuminatum), capsicum (Capsicum annuum), French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), brinjal (Solanum melongena), bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), cucurbits (Cucumis melo, C. sativus), bitter gourd (Momordica charantia), pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima , C. pepo), Brassica campestris, B. oleracea) and potato (Solanum tuberosum). Fruits such as apple (Malus pumila), peach (Prunus persica), apricot (P. armeniaca), plum (P. domestica), almond (P. amygdalus), common plums (Spondias spp), etc., are the major fruit crops. Floriculture is also fast emerging as an important cash generating activity of the production systems in certain areas. Fruit orchards of several species are found in the hills of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Uttrakhand. The fruit trees like plum, peach, apricot, etc., are grown up to 1500 m elevation. Apple orchards are found above 1500 m elevation. The terraced agricultural fields are in the form of narrow strips whose width varies from 2 to 5 m. Plantations of trees on agricultural croplands were not common in the past as enough forests were available in the vicinity, however, after clearing the forests for plantation of fruit trees as orchards in the hills during the last 4–5 decades has created acute shortage of firewood and fodder and has compelled the farmers to grow trees on their farmlands as a part of their farming systems to meet their daily need of fuel, fodder, and timber.

Indigenous Agroforestry Systems

Various traditional agroforestry system occurring in different agro-climatic zones of Northwestern Himalayan hill states along with their functional units are given in the Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Traditional agroforestry systems in North western Himalayan region
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Some Important Indigenous/Traditional Systems of the Region

Homesteads (Kyaroo)

A homestead (kyaroo) is an operational farm unit in which a number of tree species for fodder, timber, and fuelwood are raised along with livestock, poultry, and/or fish mainly for the purpose of satisfying the farmers’ basic needs. It is locally called as kyaroo in Kangra, Hamirpur, and Jammu areas, but in general it is developed and managed by every farmer in the region to meet their day-to-day requirements. In a kyaroo, multiple crops are present in a multitier canopy configuration. The fodder trees such as Celtis australis (Khirak), Bahaunia variegata (Kachnar), Grewia optiva (Beul), and bamboo species particularly major bamboo (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii) and lathi bamboo (D. strictus) for both timber and fodder are managed in the upper storey, whereas middle storey is constituted of bushes like medicinal Adhatoda vasica, Vitex negundo, etc. The fruit trees such as pear, plum, lemon and citrus, etc., are grown for domestic use.

During the rainy season cucurbits (vines) are grown along with taro (Colocasia esculanta), elephant foot yam (Dioscoria spp), and turmeric (Curcuma domestica). However, wide variation in the intensity of tree cropping is noticeable in different places. This is generally attributed to the differences in socioeconomic conditions of the households and their response to externally determined changes, particularly prices of inputs and products, dependence on land and tenurial conditions, etc. (Verma 1998).

Plantation Crop Combination

Plantation crops play a major role in national economics because these generate value added goods for the international markets. The important plantation crop of the Himalayan region is tea. Traditionally, tea is grown on waste and marginal lands in association with indigenous forest tree species. In Himachal Pradesh, tea gardens in Kangra, Palampur, and Baijnath valleys are managed under the canopy of Albizia chinensis, which not only nurses the tea plants by fixing the atmospheric nitrogen in its roots but also provides shade for the development and maintenance of new tenders. The leaf litter of Albizia trees also adds nutrients to the soil and during lean period the trees are used for fodder.

Bamboo Groves

The cultivation of bamboo (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, D. structus, and Bambusa nutans) is a common practice in agricultural holdings alongside the streams and irrigation/drainage channels and on the agriculture field along Nalas and Choes. Bamboos are extensively used in building small farmhouses, cow sheds, piggery enclosures, baskets, mates, fishing rods, hookah pipes, and various household items for daily use (Fig. 2.2), string making, and also used as water conveyers for irrigation/drainage system. Bamboo leaves serve as an excellent winter fodder for cattle. Bamboo stumps/culms also protect the water channels from erosion. This system is limited only to the high rainfall subtropical and mid-hill moist areas where sufficient water is available to grow bamboo, e.g., Palampur, Hamirpur, Una, and Bilaspur areas of Himachal Pradesh; Jammu area of Jammu and Kashmir; and Dehradun area of Uttrakhand are well known for bamboo groves (Verma 1998).

Fig. 2.2
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Handmade bamboo artifacts for sale in the market of Himachal Pradesh

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Sea-Buck-Thorn Based Agroforestry Systems in Cold Desert Areas

Sea-buck-thorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) is well known for its environmental benefits, desertification control, and land reclamation in fragile cold arid ecosystems. It fixes nitrogen by symbiotic association with microorganisms, e.g., Frankia to the tune of about 180 kg ha−1yr−1. Its plantation serves as windbreaks and also checks pedestrian traffic. Traditionally, it is planted around agricultural fields for protection of crops against stray animals and as a fuel wood because it is a potential energy plant in the region. The calorific value of dry sea-buck-thorn wood is 4,785 calories kg−1. It is fast growing shrub and can stump every 3–5 years and hence reduce pressure on other native woody plants. In Ladakh region, sea-buck-thorn (Hippophae) is harvested from wild at large scale (Fig. 2.3) and fruit pulp was sold worth of INR 14 million in 2007 for making fruit juices as a trade name “Leh berry” which has medicinal value. Its plantation/cover area accounts for less than 5 % of its potential of the region and if fully utilized the shrub can change the entire economy of the region (Stobdan et al. 2008).

Fig. 2.3
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Seabuck-thorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) fruits harvested by the local people for sale and domestic purposes. Inset showing the fruit branch of seabuckthorn

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Research and Development Initiatives in Agroforestry

Identification of Multipurpose Tree Species

Surveys were conducted in different agro-climatic zones of the states for the identification of different multipurpose tree species (MPTs) grown on farmers fields and adjoining forest areas and more than 60 % land is found under the jurisdiction of forest department for their livelihood subsistence. The farmers keep the trees for fuel, fodder, and timber. The important MPTs with their climatic zones and altitudinal distribution alongwith method of planting and uses are given in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 Multipurpose tree species (MPTs) of Northwestern Himalayan region
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Many trees such as Grewia optiva are frequently used in cropping systems by the farmers. Progressive farmers grow vegetables such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), brinjal (Solanum melongena), chillies (Capsicum annuum), etc., as remunerative crops along with trees (Fig. 2.4)

Fig. 2.4
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Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) as inter-crop with Grewia optiva trees

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Fodder Values of Important Trees and Grasses

The fodder values of promising fodder trees and grasses have been studied for meeting farmers demand as well as to understand their preference to grow specific tree on their farm lands and presented in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6 Fodder quality of promising agroforestry fodder trees and grasses of Northwestern Himalayan region
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Soil Amelioration Potential Through Agroforestry

Northwestern Himalayan region is most important ecosystem of the country to meet the irrigation potential of the Indo-Gangetic plain region which is called as “Food Ball of India” as already stated. They are characterized by undulating barren hill slopes, undulating agriculture fields and erratic rainfall pattern. The hilly terrain is subjected to runoff and soil loss of varying degrees. The geological formation of Himalayas is young in age and very weak, having scanty vegetation in some of the areas as a result of which the area is subjected to high erosion. Biotic pressure is also important reason for causing soil degradation. The dispersion ratio is used to assess the erosion behavior of the soils. Kumar et al. (2002) reported that dispersion ratio was comparatively higher under cultivated lands (18.50–21.82) followed by orchards (13.25–14.46) and lowest under forests (11.64–12.93). The erosion ratio also followed the same trend (Table 2.7) for which the vegetative cover could be the reason.

Table 2.7 Erodibility characteristics of soils under different land uses under mid-hill conditions
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More the vegetation higher the organic carbon content which results in higher water stable aggregates. Agroforestry practices consist of at least one woody component so it results in more addition of organic matter and increase in the organic carbon content. The canopy cover which increases over the unit area plays important role to limit the soil erosion by varying agents like water, wind, etc.

Barren lands recorded very high soil loss (86.05 t ha−1 yr−1) followed by intensively cultivated areas (58.87 t ha−1 yr−1), and fruit tree—based cropping system (18.27 t ha−1 yr−1), degraded forests (17.76 t ha−1 yr−1), and lowest soil loss (3.46 t ha−1 yr−1) was recorded in dense forests (Table 2.8). The vegetation protects the soil against impact of falling rain drops, increases the roughness of soil surface, reduces the speed of runoff, binds the soil mechanically, and improves the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. Alternative land uses such as forest and fruit trees—based cropping systems on unstable slopes reduce losses and generate additional income to the farmers and have sufficient biomass for nutrient recycling (Sharma et al. 2002).

Table 2.8 Effect of land use and slope on soil loss (t ha-1) under mid-hill conditions
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The silvopastoral and agri-silviculture systems provided best mechanism for conservation in Shiwalik hills. The soil loss and runoff under Eucalyptus tereticornis with bhabar grass (Eulaliopsis binata) reduced to 0.07 t ha−1 and 0.05 % in comparison to 5.65 t ha−1 and 23.0 % under cultivated fallow and 2.69 t ha−1 and 20.50 % under Sesamum indicum—Brassica campestris systems, respectively. Thus, tree-based systems were found to be very useful in Shiwalik region where erosion is a major cause of soil degradation and nutrient depletion (Grewal 1993). During the 9-year-study period, the average annual monsoon rainfall was about 1000 mm and it caused 347 mm runoff and 39t ha−1 soil loss due to erosion every year from fallow plots. The runoff and soil loss were reduced by 27 and 45 %, respectively by contour cultivation of maize (Zea mays). Contour tree-rows of Leucaena leucocephala hedges reduced the runoff and soil loss by 40 % and 48 %, respectively over the maize plot (reducing soil loss to 12.5 t ha−1). This reduction in erosion was primarily due to the barrier effect of trees or hedgerows and micro-terraces formed through sediment deposition along the contour barriers. Such vegetative measures, that are productive while being protective, offer viable alternative for erosion control in areas with gentile slopes of the valley region. High density block plantations of eucalyptus and leucaena almost completely controlled the erosion losses and can be recommended for steeper slopes that are vulnerable to heavy erosion (Narain et al. 1998).

The soils were analyzed for different nutrient status in the 20 years old plantation of fodder trees in subtropical humid zone of Himachal Pradesh and it was observed that organic carbon (OC) and available N, P, K, and Ca increased significantly in each type of block plantation. The highest OC contents (2.75 %) were observed under Ulmus villosa and Albizia stipulata syn. A. chinensis (2.74 %). The highest available nitrogen kg ha−1 was under Albizia stipulata and Dalbergia sissoo, i.e., 458 and 459 kg ha−1, respectively; available P in Grewia optiva (459 kg ha−1) and exchangeable Ca in Dalbergia sissoo plantation (5880 kg ha−1), whereas pH was observed near to neutral and EC was almost same as in the control in all the plantations (Table 2.9). Albizia stipulata , Bauhinia variegata , Bombax ceiba, Celtis australis , Dalbergia sissoo, Grewia optiva, Robinia pseudoacacia , Sapindus mukorossi , Toona ciliata , Quercus luecotricophora, and Ulmus villosa, etc., are the important tree species which the farmers of the western Himalayan region have grown on their farmlands to supplement their fodder and fuelwood needs. There is no doubt in some of these species also render benefit to the farming community indirectly, i.e., through atmospheric nitrogen fixation, addition of organic matter in the form of litter fall and also conservation of soil and water, the most important natural resources for the livelihood.

Table 2.9 Effect of block plantation of agroforestry species on physico-chemical properties of the soil
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Identification of Agroforestry Systems Under Different Land Holding Categories

During diagnostic surveys, different indigenous agroforestry systems were identified and their prevailing intensity on different land holdings was also surveyed and is presented in Table 2.10.

Table 2.10 Occurrence of agroforestry systems in Himachal Pradesh
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The marginal and small farmers usually maintain and develop all types of agroforestry systems on their agriculture field bunds and also in the homesteads/kitchen gardens. They grow trees and vegetables to meet their own requirement as well as retain fodder trees to feed the cattle during lean periods in all the agro-climatic zones. They also keep a unit of their land under fruit trees, vegetable crops, and grasses (cut and carry) to feed the livestock. The pasture land for grazing is generally state-owned common Panchayat or a community land or the state forest department owned land. Every farmer keeps a small unit of land for hay making (ghasnies) to feed their cattle in the winter season.

Improved and Managed Agroforestry Systems

There are many possibilities of interventions into the traditional agroforestry systems due to accumulated knowledge through research and have other technological opportunities. Based on research and experiences of farmers the following agroforestry systems in Western Himalayan regions are suggested for adaptations in different regions:

Subtropical Low Hill Zone

The dominant, successful, and remunerative agroforestry systems in low hill subtropical zone include Kinnow (Citrus) or mango (Mangifera indica)- based cropping systems; poplar (Populus deltoides) and Eucalyptus based agri-silvicultural systems; multipurpose (mainly fodder) trees in the ghasnies (grass lands); and trees on field bunds and along slopping lands which also support growing of fodder grasses, etc., for generating additional farm income along with meeting their own domestic requirements.

Sometime block plantations of poplar and eucalyptus are also carried out by the big or absentee farmers to supply commercial raw material to the wood-based industries or to the local saw mills/furniture manufacturers to enhance their income. These days Poplar based cropping systems are quite frequently found particularly with commercial crops (Fig. 2.5) like turmeric (Curcuma domestica) and ginger (Zingiber officinale).

Fig. 2.5
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Poplar (Populus deltoides) with turmeric (Curcuma domestica) as inter-crop)

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Success Story Related to Fruit Trees-Based Cropping System in the Region

In the subtropical low hill zone valley the farmers of Nurpur (Kangra), Nadaun, Hamirpur, and Una districts of Himachal Pradesh are getting net return of INR 10,603 and 14,845 per hectare from wheat (Triticum aestivum) and mustard (Brassica juncea) crops, respectively when these are grown on slopes along with Kinnow (Citrus sp) fruit trees. The net return from Kinnow (12 years old plantation) as sole crop was INR 47,170 per hectare but when wheat and mustard were integrated with Kinnow, the net return increased to INR 56,048 (Table 2.11). The analysis revealed that cultivation of mustard is more profitable as compared to wheat with Kinnow. However, the net profits in both the cases were higher as compared to the sole Kinnow. Economics of agri-horticultural systems revealed that both gross as well as the net returns increased on per hectare basis. Agroforestry models are thus important to enhance the land use efficiency as well as productivity.

Table 2.11 Economics of agri-horticultural system (Kinnow + wheat and Kinnow + mustard)
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Forest and Fruit Trees-Based Cropping System

A cropping system was developed which is consisted of Kinnow-mandarin (Citrus nobilis × C. deliciosa) 400 plants per hectare, subabul (Leucaena leucocephala) in quincunx method at varying plant density (0, 100, 166, and 277 plants ha−1) such as woody perennials and agricultural crops viz., wheat (Triticum aestivum) and mash (Lens culinaris) grown under irrigated conditions. Various yield parameters are shown in Table 2.12.

Table 2.12 Fruit, fodder, fuelwood, and grain yield under forest and fruit tree-based system
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The maximum number of fruits (174 thousands ha−1) which is the only economical part of the system for sale, fodder yield (2504 kg ha−1), and fuel-wood yield (1593 kg ha−1) were obtained when Kinnow was spaced at 5 m x 5 m and Leucaena trees were planted at a distance of 10 m × 5 m in between the rows of Kinnow. It is evident from the table that there is decrease in agriculture crop yield in the system when density of Leucaena trees is increased; on the other hand there is a significant increase of Kinnow fruits by incorporating Leucaena plants. The Leucaena plants fix the atmospheric nitrogen and improved the soil fertility which is available to the Kinnow trees and also provide additional benefits in terms of fuel wood and fodder for livelihood subsistence of the farmers. It is, therefore, very important that horticultural crops planted at standard distance should be incorporated with leguminous fodder trees for enhancing the income as well as livelihood subsistence in the region.

Agri-silvicultural System

In subtropical low hills, i.e., Ponta valley of Himachal Pradesh, different varieties of sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), i.e., Co 88, Co 767, Coj 64, and Co 7717 were cultivated under different clones of poplar (Populus deltoides), i.e., PD 3294, PD G3, PD G48, and PD 1/56; which were planted at 5 × 5 m spacing. The bole girth of the poplar trees varies significantly and was maximum in clone PD G48 and maximum average cane yield was recorded to be 117 t ha−1 in clone Co 7717 followed by 116.5 t ha−1 in Coj 64 under poplar plantation as compare to Co 767 (112 t ha−1) and Co 88 (107 t ha−1). Hence, Co 7717 and Coj 64 of sugarcane were found suitable for successful growing under poplar based agroforestry system (Table 2.13).

Table 2.13 Growth parameters of trees and cane yield (tons ha−1) of sugarcane varieties grown under different poplar clones
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Mid-hill Subhumid Zone

Intercropping of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Under High Density Peach Plantation

The yield of fruits increased when aromatic and medicinal plants namely Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), Ashwgandha (Withania somifera), and Kalmeghh (Andrographis paniculata) were grown between the rows of high density (4.5 m row-to-row and 2 m plant-to-plant) of 5-year-old peach (Prunus persica) plantations in the mid-hill Himalayas. There was a significant increase in yield of peach (4.5 × 2.5 m) by 7.77, 11.8, and 9.02 % with Tulsi, Ashwagandha, and Kalmegh, respectively over sole peach (Table 2.14; Fig. 2.6). It was also observed that under peach plantation, there was a significant increase in biomass of all these medicinal plants showing that partial shade is helping the growth of these plants.

Table 2.14 Yield of peach fruits and biomass production of three medicinal plants when grown in different agroforestry systems in mid-hill Himalayas
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Fig. 2.6
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Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) cultivated as inter-crop with peach (Prunus persica)

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The growing of aromatic and medicinal plants under fruit trees is highly profitable. Thakur et al. (2010) and Verma et al. (2010) also recommended growing of Digitalis lanata, Matricarea chamomilla, Salvia sclaria, and Ocimum basilicum with poplar (Populus deltoides) as shade tolerant intercrops and were proved to be good option for farm diversification. Verma and Thakur (2010) recommended the cultivation of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) with peach, and also with fruit tree Morus alba and grass Setaria for high productivity and profitability.

Carbon Sequestration in Peach, Aromatic, and Medicinal Plants Based Agroforestry Systems

The rate of carbon sequestration in the aromatic and medicinal plants was comparatively higher than the sole crops, i.e., 1.21, 0.87, and 1.14 t ha−1 yr−1 in Tulsi, Ashwagandha, and Kalmeghh under high density peach plantation in comparison to 1.00, 0.60, and 0.89 t ha−1year−1in the open sole crops, respectively. The rate of change in 1 year was highest in sole peach plantation being a perennial crop, and due to increase in growth with the age, i.e., 0.20 t ha−1 year−1. In Ashwagandha under peach, the rate of change in consecutive year was maximum, i.e., 0.12 t ha−1yr−1 and minimum was −0.15 t ha−1 yr−1 in Tulsi, i.e., productivity reduced because it is a light demanding species. Similarly, rate of carbon emission and mitigation t ha−1year−1 in aromatic and medicinal plants was higher under peach than in the open due to more biomass production (Table 2.15). Therefore, agroforestry with aromatic and medicinal plants in the mid-hill subhumid zone of the Himalayan region is a viable option for climate change for CO2 mitigation.

Table 2.15 Carbon sequestration; emission and mitigation (t ha−1yr−1) in peach-based agroforestry system involving medicinal and aromatic plants
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Biomass Production in Improved Silvopastoral System

A silvopastoral system was established on undulating farm land having slope more than 50 % to meet the fodder requirement of the cattle as one of the livelihood subsistence. The plantation of four promising fodder trees, i.e., Celtis australis , Morus alba , Grewia optiva, and Leucaena leucocephala was done in gradonies (continuous contour trenches) in alleys, i.e., at 1 m (plant-to-plant) and 4 m (row-to-row) apart. In between the rows, the grass Setaria anceps var. Kanachangula was planted intensively to have a complete land coverage. The single row fodder trees were pollarded at 0.5 m height, in other single row fodder tree pollarded at 1.5 m height and double row of fodder trees (0.5 m apart) pollarded as single row at 0.5 m and second row at 1.5 m height. The data for leaf fodder, branches as fuel wood, and grass planted underneath were recorded consecutively for 2 years after 12 years of plantation. It was observed that leaf fodder production was comparatively higher in Morus alba in all pollarding heights and varied from 1680 kg ha−1 at 1.5 m pollarding height to 2726 kg ha−1 pollarding at 0.5 m and 1.5 m height together. The mean leaf fodder production was 1897 kg ha−1 followed by 1767 kg ha−1 in Leucaena leucocephala, 699 kg ha−1 in Grewia optiva, and 263 kg ha−1 in Celtis australis. The overall productivity including grass grown under the trees between the rows was maximum in the Morus alba based agroforestry systems, i.e., 15.42 t ha−1 followed by 12.4 t ha−1 in Leucaena leucocephala, 9.91 t ha−1 in Grewia optiva, and minimum (9.5 t ha−1) in Celtis australis. The available nitrogen increased from 280 to 307 kg ha−1, available P from 1.7 to 20.7 kg ha−1, available K from 327 to 345 kg ha−1, available sulfur from 23 to 29 mg kg−1, exchangeable Ca contents from 1301 to 1943 mg kg−1, and exchangeable Mg from 261 to 312 mg kg−1, respectively (UHF 2006).

These gradonies not only conserve the moisture but also check the run off during the rainy season. The trenches are generally filled with soil particles (silt and organic matter) due to which the survival and growth of the trees increased. The similar study which was also conducted by Singh et al. (2008) in Shiwalik foot hills on research farm of the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research Training Institute, Dehradun; Grewia optiva was planted in the pits (45 × 45 × 45 cm) at 4 × 4 m spacing with a density of 625 trees ha−1 and Hybrid Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) was planted in inter-spaces. After 10 years, it was concluded that Grewia optiva trees planted alone or along with Napier hybrid, the biomass of both the components decreased significantly with time after 5 years (lopping and pollarding) of Grewia optiva and biomass from cuttings of Hybrid Napier varied from 256 to 2181 kg ha−1.

In other studies when fodder trees, i.e., Morus alba , Celtis australis , Grewia optiva, and Bauhinia variegata were lopped at different cutting heights of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 m; the maximum leaf + branch biomass accumulated in Morus alba, i.e., 7.38 t ha−1 followed by 2.16, 1.44, and 1.31 t ha−1 in Grewia optiva, Bauhinia variegata, and Celtis australis, respectively in 4 years old plantation at 2 m cutting height (Chand et al. 2008). There was significant variation in leaf N, P, K, Ca, and Mg concentrations irrespective of cutting heights. In both the cases the plantation was done in continuous contour trenches, i.e., gradonies on the hill slopes. Hence, it is recommended that in the sloppy areas of the region, the plantations should be carried out in the gradonies or continuous contour trenches to enhance the survival, growth, and biomass productivity.

Bamboo-Based Agroforestry System

Economic analysis of the bamboo-based agroforestry systems (Table 2.16) reveals that the returns from agricultural crops are quite higher than from the sole bamboo-based systems.

Table 2.16 Economic analysis of bamboo-based agroforestry systems
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The returns from the bamboo species are in the order of Dendrocalamus asper, D. hamiltonii, and Bambusa balcoa, respectively. Dendrocalamus asper culms are edible and are used for making pickles, candy vegetables, etc., by the food processing industries and are sold at higher prices than other bamboo species of the region. Similarly, the D. asper clumps are managed at lower heights as young culms are harvested regularly for pickle and candy making thus shade loving agriculture crops viz. turmeric (Curcuma domestica), soybean (Glycine max), ginger (Zingiber officinale), colocacia (Colocasia esculenta), and white yam (Dioscorea alata) are grown successfully under its canopy (Fig. 2.7). The other bamboo species are not viable options for the rainfed agroforestry systems till the market price of mature bamboo are established. There is an urgent need to establish bamboo-based cottage industries, low cost poly houses, and low cost activated charcoal or pulp and paper industries. The consumption can be made compulsory by incorporating the bamboo pulp with other hard wood pulp for the construction of tents, floors, and houses.

Fig. 2.7
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Bamboo-based agroforestry system: Tulsi, ginger, soybean, turmeric, and aloe vera as inter-crop

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High Hill Temperate Wet Zone

Economics of Apple-Based Cropping System

One study was conducted on apple (Malus pumila) based agroforestry in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh. It revealed that the average cost of cultivation of apple was INR 3,88,850 ha−1and the average net benefit from the orchard by selling fruit was INR 10,45,523 ha−1 (Table 2.17). The integration of high value crops such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicon), pea (Pisum sativum), French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), and mustard (Brassica juncea) in the system (Fig. 2.8) not only offered diversification in different growing seasons but also generated surplus income without affecting the fruit yield of the orchard (Table 2.18). However, there was significant loss (INR 57,494 ha−1) in the old traditional system when wheat was integrated as a cereal crop under apple. The average data of two consecutive years revealed that growing of pea (Pisum sativum) as a substitute crop for wheat in winter season benefitted the farmers to the extent of INR 2,84,676 ha−1 and INR 5,31,966 ha−1 in the kharif season from the cultivation of tomato.

Table 2.17 Economics of apple-based cropping system in northwestern regions
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Fig. 2.8
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Cultivation of apple (Malus pumila) with mustard (Brassica juncea) in Himachal Pradesh

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Table 2.18 Average yield, expenses, and return from annual crops in apple-based cropping system
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Hence, it is recommended that high value vegetable crops, such as beans, peas, tomato, cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli as off-season vegetable can be integrated in the temperate orchards to increase the farm income.

Agri-silviculture in Kashmir Valley

Experiments were conducted on hill slopes by planting Ulmus wallichiana as a tree crop in alleys across the slope at a distance of 1, 1.5, and 2 m row-to-row and were pruned every year at 3 m height for fodder and fuel wood. In between the rows peas and beans were planted in rabi and kharif seasons, respectively. After 10 years, it was found that there was an increase in average cumulative yield of both rabi and kharif crops when compared with the average cumulative yield of crops obtained in the control without any plantation. Increase in yield of pea and beans was to the tune of 314.34 and 454.67 kg ha−1 over the control, i.e., outside alleys, respectively. (Table 2.19).

Table 2.19 Average production of agricultural crops over a period of 10 years
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Besides the maximum yield of 950 kg ha−1 of peas and 1165 kg ha−1 of beans were recorded in an alley width of 2 m. In addition to yield of peas and beans, yield from Ulmus wallichiana trees in the form of fodder and fuel wood yielded additional benefits. Maximum fodder yield (8.43 kg tree−1yr−1) was obtained in closely spaced alleys and maximum fuel wood of 14.22 t ha−1 was obtained where alley width was maintained at 1.5 m (Table 2.20).

Table 2.20 Average yield of crop, fodder, and fuel wood under different alleys
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Thus, agri-silviculture model so devised can help in stabilizing the degraded environment and at the same time helps the farmer for increasing yield and security of food, fuel wood, and fodder.

Fruit Trees-Based Pastoral Model in Kashmir Valley

About 2.5 lakh ha area is under apple (Malus pumila), almond (Prunus amygdalus), cherry (P. avium), and other stone fruits in the Kashmir valley. Due to increase in the cattle population, there is an acute shortage of fodder and accordingly growing or cultivating of grasses in orchards is essential to feed them. A scientific fruit trees—based pastoral system was developed in the valley and accordingly evaluated for temperate legumes and grasses. The four grasses, i.e., Festuca pratense (fescue), Dactylis glomerata (orchard grass), Trifolium repense (white clover), and Trifolium pratense (clover) were compared with natural undergrowth under fully grown almond orchard. The natural undergrowth of herbaceous vegetation in the orchard was identified as: Plantago major, Plantago lanceolata, Poa bulbosa (Poa grass), Trifolium repense, and Indigofera articulata. A 3 years data showed that all introduced grasses and legumes have higher yield than natural undergrowth grasses (Table 2.21).

Table 2.21 Green forage yield (tons ha−1) of pasture and legumes
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The soil analysis revealed that there was negligible change in soil pH and EC; whereas organic matter (OM), and available N increased by continuous cropping and depleted the available P2O5 and K2O by 6.6 and 10.1 %, respectively. Grasses as under storey crops are usually better than crops because the forage grows taller under shade and therefore, associate with trees without loss of yield and there is no root competition. The grasses are also good soil binder.

High Hills Dry Temperate Zone

Aromatic and Medicinal Plants

Cold desert areas of J & K and Himachal are suitable to grow aromatic and medicinal plants along with woody perennials, i.e., salix, poplar, seabuckthorn, etc., which are maintained by the farmers to meet their fuel and fodder requirement. Salvia sclarea (Clary sage), an aromatic herb, which produces linalool and linalyl acetate as a main constituent of aromatic oil used in perfumery and generally imported from the France by Indian industries. Salvia is a summer crop planted in the first week of May and harvested in the month of September and October for oil extraction. The experiments were carried out at Kashmir valley and Ladakh cold desert area in the open as well as in the polyhouse. The essential oil percentage was found to be 0.2–0.3 % in the open field and 0.5–0.7 % in the polyhouse plantations. Qualitative estimation have shown that the oil from open field conditions contained 26.62 % Linalool and 27.66 % linalyl acetate, whereas under polyhouse conditions it showed improvement and rose to 28.38 and 50.65 %, respectively (Table 2.22). The quantity of essential oil, and linalool and linalyl acetate extracted in polyhouse condition was higher than in open field (Table 2.23).

Table 2.22 Salvia sclarea (Clarysage) oil: comparison of Linalool and Linalyl acetate in oil from Kashmir and Ladakh
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Table 2.23 Quality evaluation of oil Salvia sclarea from open field and polyhouse conditions in Ladakh
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This indicates that besides vegetables there are good scope of cultivating medicinal and aromatic plants in cold desert area along with indigenous woody perennials like Hippophae and Salix which are maintained for fuel, fodder, and timber, etc. Further, there is tremendous scope of developing livestock based silvopastoral systems particularly involving small ruminants.

In the Lahaul valley farmers maintain tree species on the boundaries of the cultivated fields in sparse situation or with low density. Hippophae rhamnoides , Juglans regia , Populus nigra , Prunus armeniaca, Prunus communis, and Salix sp. were noted among the important agroforestry species in the cold dessert of the Lahaul valley. Salix species (willow) and sea-buck-thorn are the major woody perennial components in the traditional agroforestry system along with annual/perennial medicinal and aromatic plants or arable crops like barley. The woody perennials are maintained on bunds of farmers’ fields for fuel, fodder, food, and timber purposes. The fuel wood and fodder production of both the species in different areas of Lahaul valley of Himachal Pradesh have been recorded (Table 2.24).

Table 2.24 Fuel wood and fodder production (kg) from indigenous agroforestry system of Lahaul valley of Himachal Pradesh
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The fuel wood production of Salix varies from 144 to 319 kg ha−1 and fodder production varies from 13 to 44 kg ha−1. However, in case of Hippophae, the fuel wood production from the two sides varies from 10 to 59 kg ha−1 (Table 2.24). The study sites are in the cold arid region having altitude range from 2400 to 6400 m amsl. The soils are sandy and erodible (Kuniyal et al. 2001).

Conclusions

Agroforestry in Northwestern Himalayan regions is a composite, diversified, and sustainable land use system. It provides unique opportunity for integration of different components of the farming systems to optimize the ecosystem functioning and better management of land, water, and biological resources. The traditional agroforestry systems and practices consist of growing trees deliberately with various crops and livestock for multiple benefits, viz., fuelwood, fiber, food, fruits, etc., and are time tested and well adopted in different situations. These systems developed over the years have been found suitable for conservation of natural resources, viz., soil, water, and vegetation. During past couple of decades enough research inputs have been added but still many of these systems need to be further improved with suitable technological interventions considering the local population need, so that the socioeconomic status of the farming communities is uplifted. Fruit trees-based cropping systems having medicinal and aromatic plant species as one of the components have been proved quite remunerative and sustainable systems. As live stocks are very important for these regions, hence improvement in pastures through introduction of high yielding grasses and leguminous forages along with fruit trees also need special attention. In recent times due to rise in average temperature due to climate change the apple belt has shifted toward higher altitudes increasing the total area under apple. This phenomenon needs more research inputs in the region.