Keywords

1 Introduction

Recently, consumers and health professionals, are aware of food ingredients and their health-promoting effects (Ramadan, 2019, 2021). There is an increasing interest in the nutritional potential and active phytochemicals of food and their impacts on disease prevention. Besides, the reduction of by-products discarded from food processing became one of the European Commission’s main goals (European Commission, 2019; Silva et al., 2021). According to the principles of green chemistry, it is essential to valorize bio-wastes using green methods and technologies that allow extracting active compounds that could be used to develop novel food and functional products (Stintzing et al., 2001; Anastas & Eghbali, 2010; Patel, 2012; Bouazizi et al., 2020; Oniszczuk et al., 2020; Silva et al., 2021).

Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. is gaining tremendous interest worldwide because it grows under difficult cultivation conditions (Feugang et al., 2006; Stintzing et al., 2001; Patel, 2012; Melgar et al., 2017; Amaya-Cruz et al., 2019; Barba et al., 2020; Silva et al., 2021; Valero-Galvan et al., 2021). Opuntia ficus-indica is a multi-purpose plant, not only to provide food and animal feed but also as a rich raw material of active constituents with enhancing health traits. O. ficus-indica fruit consists of pulp, seeds, and peel with weight levels of 25–60%, 2–10%, and 35–70%, respectively, wherein O. ficus-indica fruit weight average is between 45 and 250 g (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014, 2015; Amaya-Cruz et al., 2019). O. ficus-indica minerals, dietary fibers, sugar, pigments, amino acids, vitamins, and antioxidant-rich fruits and fruit bio-wastes are considered as a rich source of functional food items and nutraceuticals (Patel, 2012; Melgar et al., 2017; Andreu et al., 2018; Du Toit et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2021). The levels of O. ficus-indica active components show variability due to genetic diversity and different environmental conditions (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Amaya-Cruz et al., 2019; Barba et al., 2020).

The current chapter provides an overview of the nutritional profile and active ingredients of O. ficus-indica fruit, fruit by-products (peel and seeds), and cladode. Besides, this work exploits the potential of O. ficus-indica and its active constituents to define its possible applications in the development of pharmaceutics, cosmetics, and novel food.

2 Opuntia ficus-indica Nutritional Composition, Bioactive Ingredients and Phyto-Constituents

The composition of different parts of Opuntia ficus-indica depends on several factors, including species, cultivar, climatic conditions, fertilization, maturity status, and postharvest treatment (Stintzing et al., 2001, 2005; Patel, 2012; Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Barba et al., 2017, 2020; Silva et al., 2021). Different parts of the Opuntia ficus-indica plant have various ingredients and nutrients (Fig. 12.1), including vitamins, minerals, amino acids, carotenoids, phenolics, betalains, and fibers. The nutritional profile and chemical composition of O. ficus-indica different parts is given in Table 12.1.

Fig. 12.1
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Bioactive ingredients and phyto-constituents in Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill

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Table 12.1 Nutritional composition (g/100 g) of O. ficus-indica different parts
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Moisture levels in Opuntia ficus-indica fruit pulp are between 80% and 90%. Opuntia ficus-indica has a high moisture content (88 g/100 g) and lipids content (0.50 g/100 g) (Silva et al., 2021). Opuntia ficus-indica pulp has lower fiber and protein levels than the seeds and peel . Besides, Opuntia ficus-indica peel had greater ash levels than the seeds and pulp. Opuntia ficus-indica seeds contain the highest amounts of dietary fiber, protein, and lipids, with 54%, 11.8%, and 6.8% (dry base, db), respectively (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014). The Opuntia ficus-indica pulp is characterized by high moisture and sugar levels (Silva et al., 2021). A comparative investigation (Medina et al., 2007) of the composition of Opuntia ficus-indica and Opuntia dillenii pulp showed that O. ficus-indica had a greater protein level (0.9 g/100 g) than O. dillenii (0.5 g/100 g). The pulp composition of different cultivars of O. ficus-indica was studied, wherein the Ait Baamrane cultivar had higher levels of protein and sugar than the Alkalaa cultivar (Dehbi et al., 2014). Besides, Salim et al. (2009) analyzed O. ficus-indica peel, pulp, and seeds and reported greater contents of protein and lipids in the seeds (3.6 and 3.0 g/100 g, respectively) than in the peel (0.14 and 0.10 g/100 g, respectively).

3 Fiber

O. ficus-indica by-products (i.e., peel and seeds) might be used as an essential source of fiber for human consumption (Table 12.1). Soluble and insoluble fiber might be obtained from O. ficus-indica peel, and the insoluble fiber from O. ficus-indica seeds (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014). The mucilaginous components in O. ficus-indica fruits are related to pectic constituents (Stintzing et al., 2001). O. ficus-indica fruit pulp is an essential source of pectin (ca. 70% total raw fiber), wherein the peel and seeds contain cellulose at levels of 71.0% and 83.0%, respectively. The raw fiber content in O. ficus-indica fruit pulp is 20 g/100 g db. Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin were the main fiber components (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Missaoui et al., 2020; Dick et al., 2020).

Regarding O. ficus-indica by-products , seeds are a good fiber source, showing higher levels than the fruit peel (El Kossori et al., 1998; Salim et al., 2009; Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2021). O. ficus-indica pulp fiber is rich in pectin, but the peel and seeds contain high levels of cellulose (El Kossori et al., 1998; Patel, 2012). Meanwhile, O. ficus-indica peel pectin is characterized by the presence of galacturonic acid (64.0%), a high degree of acetylation (10.0%), a low degree of methoxylation (10.0%), and a neutral sugar content (51.0%) of which 34.5% was rhamnose and galactose (Forni et al., 1994).

4 Carbohydrate

Glucose and fructose are the main monosaccharides in O. ficus-indica pulp, while glucose is the fruit peel’s principal monosaccharide. The level of those monosaccharides is responsible for the sweet flavor of O. ficus-indica pulp and the soluble solids level of 12–17° Brix (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Barba et al., 2020). El Kossori et al. (1998) studied O. ficus-indica chemical composition and revealed ethanol-soluble carbohydrate to be the peel and pulp’s main components. In O. ficus-indica juices, total soluble solids recorded 127°Bx-177°Bx, with fructose and glucose being the main carbohydrates. Due to the high invertase activities, sucrose converted to readily absorbable sugar , and thus sucrose is a minor constituent in the fruit pulp (Stintzing et al., 2001).

5 Minerals

The mineral levels in the O. ficus-indica different parts are given in Table 12.2. O. ficus-indica pulp is considered a valuable source of minerals, including potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014). Medina et al. (2007) mentioned that magnesium and potassium levels were similar in O. ficus-indica orange pulp and green pulp. O. ficus-indica seeds are rich in minerals (i.e., phosphorus and potassium), while magnesium, calcium, and sodium were also recorded (El Kossori et al., 1998; Stintzing et al., 2001; Özcan & Al Juhaimi, 2011; Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2021). High calcium (ca. 59.0 mg/100 g) and magnesium (ca. 98.4 mg/100 g) levels make O. ficus-indica juice effective in the prevention of cramps and osteoporosis. According to Missaoui et al. (2020), O. ficus-indica cladode contains high amounts of calcium (7517 mg/100 g), potassium (1684 mg/100 g), sodium (1918 mg/100 g), and magnesium (1380 mg/100 g).

Table 12.2 Mineral levels (mg/100 g) in different parts of O. ficus-indica
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Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) of calcium, potassium, and magnesium are 1000, 2000, and 400–420 mg, respectively, in adults (Mahan & Escott-Stump, 2001). It was mentioned that 250 g of O. ficus-indica pulp might contribute to 140, 40, and 19 mg of potassium, calcium, and magnesium, levels that are close to 10% of RDA (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014). Magnesium, calcium, and potassium are also applied in sports and energy drinks to uphold the mineral pool during physical exercise (Stintzing et al., 2001).

6 Vitamins

Vitamins are nutritionally essential compounds of the O. ficus-indica (Table 12.3). The levels of vitamins found in O. ficus-indica vary among the plant parts. O. ficus-indica pulp is a rich source of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), wherein its amount ranged from 17.0 to 46.0 mg/100 g (Galati et al., 2003; Stintzing et al., 2005; Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2021). RDA value of vitamin C is 60 mg for adult women and men, and of 45 mg for children (Mahan & Escott-Stump, 2001). Consumption of 250 mL of O. ficus-indica juice might be enough to supply about 25% of adults’ requirements (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014).

Table 12.3 Vitamins levels in the different parts and products of O. ficus-indica
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O. ficus-indica peel is a good source of vitamin E, especially α-tocopherol (1761 mg/100 g total lipid) (Ramadan & Mörsel, 2003a, b, c; Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2021). In O. ficus-indica pulp, α-tocopherol is found in greater levels, compared with other vitamin E forms. Ramadan and Mörsel (2003a, b) compared O. ficus-indica seed oil with the pulp oil and reported that the pulp oil had a higher level of vitamin E, especially δ-tocopherol (442 mg/100 g total lipid). Besides, O. ficus-indica seed oil had a higher level of γ-tocopherol (33 mg/100 g total lipid).

Vitamin K is a cofactor in the synthesis of the coagulation inhibitor, blood coagulation factors, and the proteins of the bone matrix. RDA values for vitamin K are 80 and 65μg for adult men and women, respectively (Mahan & Escott-Stump, 2001). O. ficus-indica seed and pulp oils contain high levels of vitamin K (Table 12.3), wherein 150μg of O. ficus-indica oils could meet the requirements of vitamin K (Ramadan & Mörsel, 2003a; Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014).

7 Amino Acids

Protein level was found to be high in O. ficus-indica seeds (El Kossori et al., 1998). The primary amino acids (Table 12.4) found in the O. ficus-indica pulp are serine and proline, and γ-aminobutyric acid (Ali et al., 2014; Stintzing et al., 1999, 2001; Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014). Free amino acids in O. ficus-indica comprised all essential amino acids (Stintzing et al., 2001). Meanwhile, O. ficus-indica pulp comprises various free amino acids, predominating glutamine, proline, and taurine (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014).

Table 12.4 Amino acid levels in the different parts of O. ficus-indica
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Concerning the amino acids content in O. ficus-indica seeds, the primary amino acids are glutamic acid (20 g/100 g protein) and arginine (14 g/100 g protein) (Sawaya et al., 1983). Stintzing et al. (1999) studied the amino acids present in pulps of different O. ficus-indica cultivars and mentioned that taurine (semi-essential amino acid), proline, and glutamine were the primary acids (Stintzing et al., 2001, 2005; Silva et al., 2021). Taurine (Fig. 12.2) is considered a cellular protective amino acid. In addition, taurine is a preventive agent of hepatic steatosis or fatty-liver disease and considered a stabilizer of the cell membrane, providing neuromodulation, osmoregulation, and hypercholesterolemia (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Chang et al., 2010). In addition, taurine is involved in modulating the inflammatory response and showed antioxidant potential (Devamanoharan et al., 1998; Wu et al., 1999; Stintzing et al., 2005; Silva et al., 2021). Besides, taurine is commonly added to energy and sports drinks (Stintzing et al., 2001, 2005).

Fig. 12.2
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Taurine structure

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8 Carotenoids

Total carotenoids content was reported in the whole O. ficus-indica as 2.6–2.9μg β-carotene equivalents (μg βCE)/g (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014). As reported (Tesoriere et al., 2005; Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014), O. ficus-indica contains 0.015, 0.014, and 0.045μg βCE/g in the pulp of yellow, white, and red species, distributed as trans-β-carotene (80–87%), α-carotene (ca. 5.0%), trans-lycopene (8.0–12.0%) and phytofluene (0.90–1.40%).

In O. ficus-indica cladodes, lutein (102–187μg/100 g db), β-carotene (82–119μg/100 g db), and β-cryptoxanthin (45–72μg/100 g db) were quantified (Jaramillo-Flores et al., 2003). As reported by Cano et al. (2017), O. ficus-indica peel had higher carotenoids than in the pulp. The same authors (Cano et al., 2017) reported that the major carotenoids in O. ficus-indica peel of Verdal (orange) variety and Sanguinos (red) variety, respectively, are lutein (765 and 1130μg/100 g), β-carotene (170 and 200μg/100 g) and violaxanthin (87.6 and 93.6μg/100 g). In addition, lycopene was detected in O. ficus-indica peel (45.6μg/100 g), whereas only trace amounts were detected in the pulp. In O. ficus-indica pulp of the varieties mentioned above, the predominant carotenoids were lutein (203 and 201μg/100 g), β-carotene (79.0 and 37.0μg/100 g), violaxanthin (3.1–5.7μg/100 g), and zeaxanthin (12.0 and 14.0μg/100 g) (Cano et al., 2017; Silva et al., 2021).

9 Betalains

Betalains , aromatic compounds derived from tyrosine, are vacuolar pigments contain a nitrogenous core structure (betalamic acid). The presence of betalamic acid was confirmed in O. ficus-indica fruits (Stintzing et al., 2001). Betalain compounds include two classes (Fig. 12.3): betaxanthins (yellow) and betacyanins (red-violet), and their levels vary upon fruit color (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Cano et al., 2017; Kanner et al., 2001; Slimen et al., 2016). Meanwhile, betalains are effective radical scavengers and act as antioxidants in biological systems (Stintzing et al., 2001; Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Cano et al., 2017; Kanner et al., 2001; Slimen et al., 2016). Stintzing et al. (2005) reported the levels of betaxanthins (32.7–553 mg/kg) and betacyanins (586–10.5 mg/kg) in different O. ficus-indica cultivars. As reported by Cano et al. (2017), O. ficus-indica peel contains high values of betacyanins (1.1 and 2.5 mg betanin/100 g) and betaxanthins (1.7 and 2.0 mg indicaxanthin/100 g) for O. ficus-indica Verdal and Sanguinos varieties , respectively (Jimenez-Aguilar et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2021).

Fig. 12.3
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Structure of betalain, betaxanthins and betacyanins

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10 Conclusions

The trend towards functional ingredients that are promoting well-being and health is increased. O. ficus-indica as a multi-ingredient fruit that holds a promising answer for tailor-made novel food and nutraceuticals by embracing functional compounds such as betalains, carotenoids, readily absorbable carbohydrates, taurine, magnesium, calcium, vitamin C, and soluble fibers. O. ficus-indica bioactives exhibited diverse health-promoting effects, including hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, anti-atherogenic, anticarcinogenic, anti-ulcerogenic, and hepatoprotective traits.

Considering the nutritional composition of O. ficus-indica, it could be said that O. ficus-indica fruit, fruit by-products (skin and seeds), and cladode could be industrially exploited. There is a potential of O. ficus-indica fruit, fruit by-products (peel and seeds), and cladode to develop novel food and to extract added-value phyto-extracts that could be applied in cosmetic, food, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. The transformation of O. ficus-indica by-products (peel and seeds) and cladode into novel raw materials make it possible to move to a closed economic systems. It is essential to continue investing in new bioactives with attractive biological traits and to optimize their extraction techniques, making them environmentally friendly. Besides, it is anticipated to study the mechanisms of action of O. ficus-indica phytochemicals regarding its health impacts.