Abstract
Odour-sound correspondences provide some of the most fascinating and intriguing examples of crossmodal associations, in part, because it is unclear from where exactly they originate. Although frequently used as similes, or figures of speech, in both literature and poetry, such smell-sound correspondences have recently started to attract the attention of experimental researchers too. To date, the findings clearly demonstrate that the majority of non-synaesthetic individuals associate orthonasally-presented odours with various different sound properties, e.g., pitch, instrument type, and timbre, in a non-random manner. What is more, these auditory-olfactory associations exhibit a number of features that are common to other crossmodal associations, such as their consistency over time, and their bidirectionality. However, the psychological mechanism(s) underpinning these associations in the general population remain(s) unclear, with a number of distinct hypotheses having been put forward over the years. In this chapter, we consider auditory-olfactory associations in art and science, focusing on poetry, music composition, and performance. First, we provide examples of the use of auditory-olfactory synaesthetic metaphors in poetry, from William Shakespeare through to Romanticism, illustrating how crossmodal associations have appeared in literature for centuries. Then, we move on to focus on music composition and performance, describing a number of examples where auditory stimuli have been purposely matched with crossmodally corresponding olfactory and/or visual stimuli. Considering the scientific study of smell-sound correspondences, we review the key psychophysical studies demonstrating that, beyond the artistic context, robust and non-random crossmodal associations are also triggered in the majority of the general population. We discuss a number of hypotheses that have been put forward over the years to account for such associations, focusing on the idea that certain correspondences between olfactory and auditory stimuli are mediated by the emotional character of the component stimuli.
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Notes
- 1.
Note that while the majority of studies have focused on orthonasally-experienced odours, there is little reason to believe that the same findings would not also be obtained with retronasally-presented odours as well. However, to date, far fewer studies have chosen to deliver their odorants via the latter route.
- 2.
- 3.
Shakespeare, as far as we are aware, was not a synaesthete.
- 4.
“Now it is nearly time when, quivering on its stem,/ Each flower, like a censer, sprinkles out its scent;/ Sounds and perfumes are mingling in the evening air;/ Waltz of a mournfulness and languid vertigo!” (Baudelaire 1998).
- 5.
“I wanted for music a freedom that it contains, perhaps more than any other art, as it is not confined to a more or less exact reproduction of nature, but to the mysterious correspondences between Nature and the Imagination” (Kieffer 2019, p. 244).
- 6.
“So perfumes, colours, sounds may correspond./ Odours there are, fresh as a baby’s skin,/ Mellow as oboes, green as meadow grass,/ – Others corrupted, rich, triumphant, full,/ Having dimensions infinitely vast,/ Frankincense, musk, ambergris, benjamin,/ Singing the senses’ rapture, and the soul’s” (Baudelaire 1998).
- 7.
Hoffmann’s novel Johannes Kreisler, des Kapellmeisters Musikalische Leiden was first published in 1815.
- 8.
In addition to auditory and olfactory stimuli, dancing geishas provided stimuli to a third sense modality (i.e., vision).
- 9.
- 10.
https://yellowhousesydney.com.au/workshops/2016/10/13/the-scent-of-memory and Sebag-Montefiore (2016).
- 11.
- 12.
Only about 2% of the synaesthetes have either sound-smell (1.5%) or smell-sound (0.6%) synaesthesia, a very small proportion as compared with the 18.5% who have colour-sound synaesthesia (Day 2005).
- 13.
It is worth noting that for a concept (e.g., brightness) to be amodal, it needs to be the same physical property that is picked up by multiple senses. In contrast, in case of transitivity grounded on perceptual similarity, this implies that the two stimuli seem similar, but no common property is actually necessarily being picked-up by the various senses.
- 14.
Available online at https://www.english-corpora.org/coca/
- 15.
It has been used for marketing, by the Frito-Lay Inc. advertising campaign on Doritos, “The Loudest Taste on Earth”. However, as emerges from the spot (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p0JmiXBoOks), the claim did not immediately refer to a crossmodal association, rather to the loud crunch that the tortilla produce when eaten.
- 16.
The “connotative account” also appears in the literature as a further explanation for crossmodal associations that seems to partially overlap with transitivity (Walker et al. 2012; Walker 2012; Walker 2016; Walker and Walker 2012; Albertazzi et al. 2015). According to such an account, it is hypothesized that different sensory channels can provide corresponding information about an object (e.g., both vision and audition indicate connotative brightness when they register surface brightness of the object and the relatively “bright”, i.e., high-pitched, sound emitted by the object, respectively).
- 17.
In his Compendium Musicae, Descartes defined music as intimately related to affectivity and he defined it as an act «ut delectet, variosque in nobis moveat affectus» (Descartes 2008, p. 15).
- 18.
The literature shows that those auditory stimuli perceived as emotionally-valenced have common acoustic features, e.g., for sad stimuli, low pitch, small pitch movement, quieter, slower, more mumbled articulation and darker timbre (see Huron 2011). Recently, Ma et al. (2019) developed a tool to predict, on the basis of musical features, the emotional responses of the listeners.
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The authors would like to thank Asifa Majid for her helpful suggestions.
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Di Stefano, N., Murari, M., Spence, C. (2022). Crossmodal Correspondences in Art and Science: Odours, Poetry, and Music. In: Di Stefano, N., Russo, M.T. (eds) Olfaction: An Interdisciplinary Perspective from Philosophy to Life Sciences. Human Perspectives in Health Sciences and Technology, vol 4. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75205-7_10
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75205-7_10
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