Keywords

Introduction

The role of meditation in reducing stress has been studied since the 1950s. However, spirituality has emerged in management literature only since the 1990s (Dale 1991; Dehler and Welsh 1994; Holland 1989; Lee 1991; Mitroff et al. 1999), and little research is devoted to the development of indigenous constructs of spirituality. Bhawuk (2019a, b) attempted to bridge this gap in the literature by developing the construct of adhyAtma from the bhagavadgItA and showed how it permeates the daily life of people in India. In this chapter, an attempt is made to systematically develop and elaborate the construct of adhyAtma using multiple methods.

Bhawuk (2017) developed the construct of lajjA, and presented a methodology for systematically developing indigenous constructs. Building on the proposal by Hwang (2007) that indigenous theories can be developed by synthesizing ideas from the life-world and micro-world, Bhawuk (2019a) posited that Indian philosophical texts like the bhagavadgItA and upaniSads constitute micro-worlds, whereas the biographical stories of saints and dialogues of knowledge seekers with them constitute knowledge in the life-world, and utilized both in developing a spirituality-based theory of creativity. Life-world refers to knowledge created by people to solve problems of daily life, and wisdom is the highest form of coded knowledge in the life-world. On the other hand, micro-world refers to theories developed by researchers that are used to explain phenomena or to solve problems in the life-world, and accumulation of a body of knowledge leads to the creation of specific or discipline-based micro-worlds that are necessarily academic in nature.

In this chapter, an attempt is made to employ both the approaches presented by Bhawuk (2017, 2019a) to synthesize micro-world and life-world to present a thick description (Geertz 1973) of the construct of adhyAtma or spirituality. First, a lexical analysis is performed on the dictionary meaning of the word. The synonyms and antonyms of the word are also examined. Following this, the meaning of adhyAtma is derived from a scriptural text, the bhagavadgItA , and how its meaning is closely related to other constructs like brahman, adhibhUta, adhidaiva, adhiyajJa, and karma is elaborated upon. Then, ideas relevant to the practice of adhyAtma are examined in another scriptural text, pAtaJjalayogasUtra. This allows an enrichment of the construct of adhyAtma. Finally, how adhyAtma translates in the daily behaviour of an exemplar spiritual practitioner is examined. This is done by presenting examples from the life of pramukh swAmIjI, past president (May 21, 1950, to August 13, 2016) of BAPS. Thus, a synthesis of micro-world ( bhagavadgItA and pAtaJjalayogasUtra) and life-world (pramukh swAmIjI) is employed in defining and elaborating the construct of adhyAtma (see Bhawuk 2019a, for an elaboration of this approach). The chapter ends with a discussion of the implications of adhyAtma for the extant Western theories and global psychology.

AdhyAtma: A Lexical Analysis

Most Indian and Nepali bilinguals translate spirituality as adhyAtma and spiritual as adhyAtmika or dhArmika in common parlance. AdhyAtmika is also contrasted with sAMsArika, which refers to a person who is chasing material goods and success, and so saMsArika may be considered the antonym of adhyAtmika. Thus, adhyAtma refers to a reflective internal life with an inward focus, whereas saMsArika refers to people who are following the external life or a life that is preoccupied with sense organs and material things. This difference between the external and internal focused lives is captured by the wise saints of India, which shows convergence in the understanding between lay people and exemplar practitioners of adhyAtma that the saints are.

ramaNa maharsI noted that “It is only rarely that a man becomes introverted. The intellect delights in investigating the past and the future but does not look to the present” (ramaNa maharSI, March 3, 1939). Similarly, swAmi Chinmayanand noted that “When I slip outside, I fall; when I slip inside, I rise.” Finally, nisargadatta mahArAja noted that when on an internal journey we are not grasping and holding or coveting and acquiring—“The jJAni is not grasping and holding” (nisargadatta 1973, 506). When one is on the internal journey, his or her maturity is reflected in not being selfish—“Love is not selective, desire is selective. In love there are no strangers. When the center of selfishness is no longer, all desires for pleasure and fear of pain cease; one is no longer interested in being happy; beyond happiness there is pure intensity, inexhaustible energy, the ecstasy of giving from a perennial source” (nisargadatta 1973, 489). The advanced pursuant of spirituality naturally feels “I am the world, the world is myself,” and lives in the “vastness beyond the farthest reaches of the mind” (nisargadatta 1973, 507) and becomes that vastness, which is love, himself or herself.

The saMskRta to English dictionary by Monier-Williams (1899) defines adhyAtma as “the Supreme Spirit, own, belonging to self, concerning self or individual personality,” and the one by Apte (1890) defines adhyAtma as (“Atmana saMbaddhaM, Atmani adhikRtaM vA”) “belonging to self or person, or concerning an individual.” Thus, adhyAtma is related to self, the Supreme Spirit or bramha , and the individual being or person that we are, and we will see that these definitions are close to the scriptural texts as they are derived from these sources.

The comparison between adhyAtma and spirituality would be useful. According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, in English, spiritual means “not composed of matter.” A sceptic or a realist is likely to scoff at the very notion of spiritual entities, which includes ghosts. The synonyms of spiritual include bodiless, ethereal, formless, immaterial, incorporeal, insubstantial, nonmaterial, nonphysical, unbodied, unsubstantial. Other words related to spiritual are metaphysical, psychic (also psychical), supernatural, impalpable, insensible, intangible, invisible, airy, diaphanous, gaseous, gossamery, tenuous, thin, vaporous, and wispish. The antonyms of spiritual include animal, carnal, fleshly, detectable, discernible (also discernable), noticeable, observable, palpable, sensible, tangible, visible, bulky, heavy, massive, and solid. Other antonyms of spiritual include “bodily, corporeal, material, physical, and substantial.” The words in bold face provide shared understanding between saMskRta and English, and other words show cultural differences.

Spiritual also means “of, relating to, or used in the practice or worship services of a religion” (e.g., spiritual songs). The synonyms of spiritual include devotional, religious, sacred. Other words related to spiritual are blessed, consecrated, hallowed, holy, sacrosanct, sanctified, solemn, liturgical, ritual, sacramental, semi-religious, and semi-sacred. The near antonyms of spiritual include earthly, mundane, terrene, terrestrial, and worldly. The antonyms of spiritual include “nonreligious, profane, and secular.” Again, the words in bold face provide shared understanding between saMskRta and English, and other words show cultural differences.

AdhyAtma in the bhagavadgItA

BhagavadgItA is a rich source for developing psychological constructs and models, which make intuitive sense, and can be applied by lay people in their daily lives without much preparation and training (Bhawuk 2011, 2019b, in press). These models cover a variety of ideas and constructs pertaining to lajjA (Bhawuk 2017), lokasaMgraha, and leadership (Bhawuk 2019a, b), how we get angry and how we can control anger (Bhawuk 1999), what is work and how we should work (Bhawuk 2011), emotion and stress management (Bhawuk 2008), adhyAtma or spirituality (Bhawuk in press), and so forth.

In the bhagavadgItA, adhyAtma appears eight times in verses 3.30, 7.29, 8.1, 8.3, 10.32, 11.1, 13.11, and 15.5. AdhyAtma is defined succinctly in the eighth canto, though it appears for the first time in the third canto. The definition in the eighth canto follows the discussion in the seventh canto, so first the definition is presented as it appears in the context of the seventh and eighth cantos, and then the meaning of the construct is elaborated upon by discussing the verses in the other cantos.

The discourse in the seventh canto is started by kRSNa promising to arjuna that he would explain to him how arjuna would, beyond any doubt, completely come to know kRSNa by practising yoga, by attaching his manas to kRSNa, and by taking refuge in kRSNa.Footnote 1 Thus, at the end of seventh canto, it is only fitting that kRSNa succinctly explain what he had promised, and he does that in the last two verses. kRSNa states that those who make an effort to be free of the birth and death cycle by taking refuge in kRSNa come to know bramha , adhyAtma, and karma completely (verse 7.29Footnote 2). Further, those who are one with the self or Atman know kRSNa completely in all the three forms—adhibhUta (or in the physical form), adhidaiva (or in the divine form), and adhiyajJa (or in the sacrifices); and they know kRSNa completely even at the time of death (verse 7.30Footnote 3). Thus, in verses 7.29 and 7.30, kRSNa presents the six constructs (i.e., bramha , adhyAtma, karma , adhibhUta, adhidaiva, and adhiyajJa) that arjuna asks about in the beginning of the eighth canto.

In verse 8.1,Footnote 4 arjuna asks kRSNa “What is adhyAtmaM?” But the question itself is embedded in a set of eight questions providing a nomological network for the construct in verses 8.1 and 8.2Footnote 5: What is bramha ? What is adhyAtmaM? What is karma ? What is called adhibhUtam? What is called adhidaivam? Who is adhiyajJaH? How is it in the body? And how do people know it at the end of their life? So, it would be meaningful to understand adhyAtma in the context that is presented in verses 8.1–8.5 in the dialogue between arjuna and kRSNa.

In verse 8.3,Footnote 6 kRSNa defines bramha as akSaraM or that which does not decay, is immutable, indestructible, or imperishable. Some interpret bramha as the “subjective Essence behind the phenomenal world” (Chinmayanand 1992, 545), that “which penetrates everything, which is all-pervading” (madhusudan saraswati translated by gambhIrAnanda 1998), or that which “is big and causes everything to grow in it” (abhinavagupta, translated by saGkaranArAyaNan 1985). These interpretations are consistent with the definition of bramha in the Indian cultural texts of the vedas and the upaniSads .

Further, kRSNa defines adhyAtma as svabhAva or the intrinsic nature of bramha . Some interpret svabhAva as the presence of bramha in each individual body (Chinmayanand 1992), that which exists in the context of the body as the enjoyer (madhusudan saraswati, translated by gambhIrAnanda 1998, 537), or “as the Lord-of-self is that which bears the name Consciousness which never ceases to be in It ( bramha ) and which is nothing but the bramha ” (abhinavagupta, translated by saGkaranArAyaNan 1985). Thus, adhyAtma is defined and interpreted as the presence of bramha in the human body.

Finally, in verse 8.3, kRSNa states that karma is said to be bhUtabhAvaudbhavakaraH visargaH or that sacrifice which is the cause of the creation of all beings. All yajJas require sacrifice and are considered the cause of the creation and growth of beings (see Bhawuk 2011, 192). Therefore, karma refers to yajJa. Here we can see that even mundane activities are made into non-mundane and spiritual, implying that all karma is spiritual. In other words, there is never a gap between secular and spiritual; all is spiritual. Thus, we see the Indian emphasis on spirituality in all domains of life.

In verse 8.4,Footnote 7 kRSNa defines adhibhUta as kSaraH bhAvaH or the perishable or changing entities. Anything that is born and dies, or all of the material world, is captured in adhibhUta. adhidaiva is defined as puruSaH or that which permeates every entity in the world. And kRSNa calls himself the adhiyajJa. And he says he resides in every being, equating himself with bramha . In verse 8.5,Footnote 8 kRSNa tells arjuna that one who leaves the body at the time of death by thinking of kRSNa, beyond doubt, merges with kRSNa or achieves kRSNa’s essence. This has been referred to as mokSA (or liberation) or self-realization, which is the ultimate objective of human life in the Indian world view. There is consensus in the interpretation of these verses among scholars from across various schools of Indian philosophy (Chinmayanand 1992; madhusudan saraswati, translated by gambhIrAnanda 1998; abhinavagupta, translated by saGkaranArAyaNan 1985), allowing for a convergence in the relationship among various constructs and adhyAtma.

In Fig. 3.1, we can see that adhyAtma is located between the two banks of the metaphorical river akSara, the immutable (or brahman), and kSara, the mutable (or physical self and all of prakRti or nature). On the one hand, adhyAtma is closely associated with brahman, which is also adhiyajJa, and, on the other hand, it is related to adhidaiva, which permeates all that is mutable or all of nature, including the human physical self. The mutable is constantly into karma or action, and karma causes mutation. But in all the mutation associated with prakRti (or nature) and karma (or actions), the unchanging self, adhyAtma, remains unconditioned like the immutable brahman itself. Thus, the objective of life is to experience this unchanging self in the flow of actions that takes place between the two banks of akSara and kSara. The other verses that refer to adhyAtma in the bhagavadgItA clearly emphasize this.

Fig. 3.1
figure 1

A nomological network of adhyAtma and brahman, adhibhuta, adhidaiva, adhiyajJa, and karma

Full size image

In verse 3.30, kRSNa asks arjuna to offer all karmas (or actions) to him by being conscious that the self is bramha , and to fight in the battle without any hope, sense of self, or sorrow.Footnote 9 Adizankara explains adhyAtmacetasA as “vivekabuddhayA ahaM kartA IzvarAya bhRtyavat karomi iti anayA buddhayA” or having the buddhi (or discriminating understanding) that one is the servant of God and one always does all actions with that mindset. “To act as the servant of God,” thus, is one of the definitions of spirituality, as applied to action. swAmi gambhIrAnand translates adhyAtmacetasA as “mind spiritually imbued”;Footnote 10 swAmi prabhupAda translates it as “with the full knowledge of the self”;Footnote 11 swAmi Chinmayanand translates it as “with a mind soaked with devoted remembrances of the Self” (Holy gItA, p. 234) and also as “with the mind centered on the Self” (Holy gItA: Ready Reference, p. 61). Therefore, the definition of adhyAtma, “working as the servant of God,” presented in verse 3.30 is consistent as a method to realize the presence of bramha in one’s self or to become one with bramha in one’s daily living. In other words, to be one with God, one has to work as the servant of God, and that is an Indian perspective on work and spirituality.

In the tenth canto, kRSNa describes his various manifestations, and in verse 10.32,Footnote 12 he calls himself adhyAtma-vidyA or knowledge of self among all kinds of vidyA or knowledge. In verse 11.1,Footnote 13 adhyAtma is used in the same sense as the pious knowledge of the self. In verse 13.11,Footnote 14 adhyAtma is used in association with jJAna or knowledge, and adhyAtmajJAna or knowledge of self alone is said to be knowledge, and all else is non-knowledge. This emphasizes spirituality as the foundation of knowledge in the Indian world view, and all other knowledge as secondary. Knowing the self becomes the raison d’être of human existence in the Indian world view, and it is no surprise that people who have some form of spiritual practice are referred to as adhyAtmika or dhArmika in everyday life as noted above. Thus, adhyAtma is not an esoteric term but a commonly used construct.

In verse 15.5,Footnote 15 kRSNa tells arjuna that those who are devoid of pride and delusion (nirmAnamohA), without the faults of attachment (jitasaGgadoSA), devoted to spirituality or ever immersed in the reflection on self (adhyAtmanityA), free from all desires (vinivRttakAmAH), free of duality (dvandvairvimuktAH), and equipoised in happiness and sorrow (sukhaduHkhasaJjnaiH), such wise ones (amUDhAH) reach the undecaying state of perfection (gacchanti padamavyayaM), or become self-realized. We see that adhyAtma or spirituality is embedded in another nomological network of five practices—(i) eradicating pride and delusion, (ii) conquering the flaw of attachment, (iii) uprooting all tendencies towards desires, (iv) freeing oneself of all dualities, and (v) remaining equipoised in pleasure and pain—that lead to enlightenment. Thus, adhyAtma is not only a construct but also a practice; it encompasses the state, the presence of bramhan in the human body, and the method that leads to realizing brahman, thus emphasizing the role of spirituality in the pursuit of mokSa or liberation.

To summarize, adhyAtma is related to bramha , karma , adhibhUta (the entity existing in the physical plane), adhidaiva (the entity existing in the divine plane), and AdhiyajJa (the entity existing in the sacrifices or all actions). AdhyAtma is the pious knowledge (jJAna or vidyA) of self, and knowledge related to adhyAtma is superior to all types of knowledge. AdhyAtma is about centring the mind on the Self or Atman. It is a practice that leads to mokSa or freedom that goes hand in hand with other practices like eradicating pride and delusion, uprooting attachment, eradicating desires, practising equanimity, and freeing oneself of all duality like happiness and sorrow. It is to act without agency or as the servant of God in pursuit of mokSa or liberation. AdhyAtma is the inward-looking process that leads to find pleasure, contentment, and satisfaction in Atman (bhagavadgItA 3.17Footnote 16) such that the person interacts energetically with the outside world without neglecting it or getting snared in it (bhagavadgItA 18.26Footnote 17).

AdhyAtmic AcaraNa: yama and niyama in pAtaJjalayogasUtra

In pAtaJjalayogasUtra, the foundation of the eightfold path of yoga is said to be the first two steps that include yama and niyama, each of which includes five practices. yama includes ahiMsA, satya, asteya, brahmacarya, and aparigraha; and niyama includes zauca, santoSa, tapaH, svAdhyAya, and IzwarapraNidhAna. These practices are recommended for all spiritual aspirants, whatever path they may follow. Thus, they unequivocally constitute the most common denomination of all spiritual practices in India. Each of these practices is conducted at three levels—in physical behaviour (kAyA), in speech (vAcA), and in thought (manasA)—purifying physical behaviour being the grossest and cleansing the manas being the subtlest; speech lies in between these two practices.

AhiMsA calls for cultivating nonviolence towards all beings. Causing harm to others is viewed as causing harm to oneself, so one should not cause harm to others in any situation. The practice of ahiMsA leads to the realization that there is no other—all is self. This leads to a complete stoppage of otherization. The cultivation of satya is founded on the practice of speaking the truth and acting in a manner that is transparent and without any deceit. Cultivation of satya culminates in taking Atman or self as the only truth, and seeing oneself in all beings and all beings in oneself. When such a mindset is cultivated, one’s behaviour, speech, and thought are purified and one has no need to speak a lie or act in a manner that is inauthentic. In other words, the practice of satya is cultivating authenticity.

The practice of asteya, on the surface, translates as non-stealing. However, it leads to the cultivation of not taking anything that does not belong to the self. The deeper meaning is the appreciation that one is the Universe, one is complete; and hence, there is no need or tendency for one to take anything from anybody else. The practice of bramhacarya is often meant to be the cultivation of celibacy in the first (brahmacarya Azrama) and last two phases of life (vAnaparastha and sannyAsa Azramas), whereas it means being faithful to one’s spouse in the second phase of life (gRhastha Azrama). It could be interpreted as the practice of seeing brahman wherever the senses go, thus there would be no attachment to any material aspect of prakRti or nature. Thus, the desire for sex would also not be there.

Finally, the cultivation of aparigraha is about not collecting material things and leads to non-possessiveness. When one views oneself as complete or the Universe, there is no need to collect anything. However, in the early phases of spiritual practice, aparigraha helps slowly weaken the desire to possess material things, one at a time, thus leading to the uncluttered life with only a few possessions that are necessary to keep the body and mind going. Both aparigraha and asteya lead one to go beyond the deficit theory of self.

The first niyama is zauca, and it calls for purifying the body, speech, and manas. It could be interpreted as cleaning the tendency to collect material things (prakRti), and so being adhyAtmika means withdrawing oneself from the material things. The second niyama, santoSa, is about being contented about life in general, and accepting whatever comes ones way (see verse 4.22 in the bhagavadgItA , especially the concept of yadRcchAlabhasantuSTaH). Contentment in Atman (see verse 3.17 in the bhagavadgItA ) instead of material things is a practice of leading a spiritual life. It is an important practice, and aSTAvakra asks janaka to practise it along with forgiveness (kSamA), simplicity (Arjava), compassion (dayA), and truth (satya).Footnote 18

The third niyama, tapaH, is about cultivating austerity. We seek physical comfort, and material things make us comfortable. Austerity is giving up the material comfort and hankerings, and is considered a basic practice for spiritual aspirants. In the bhagavadgItA , tapaH is considered one of the 26 daivik sampadAs (see verse 16.1 in the bhagavadgItA ) or divine virtues, and it is classified as sAtvika, rAjasika, and tAmasika following the three guNas (see verses 17.13–19 in the bhagavadgItA ).

The fourth niyama, svAdhyAya, is about cultivating regular daily study of the scriptures that helps the spiritual aspirant to emphasize the value of spiritual growth and weaken the bonds of material life. It was noted above that adhyAtma-vidyA is superior to all knowledge, and, therefore, studying about Atman and unlearning material knowledge is a spiritual practice. In the bhagavadgItA (verse 17.15), svAdhyAya is referred to as vaGmayamtapa, or the tapaH of speech.

The fifth niyama, IzwarpraNidhAna, is about constantly contemplating about Izwara or the controller of the universe. This practice leads to shedding our control over the material world by contemplation on brahman or constantly thinking about the controller of the Atman (which is a definition of adhyAtma). Thus, spirituality is about contemplation and surrender and letting go of the tendency to control things.

The following additional five yamas are presented in zAnDilyopaniSad: kSamA or forgiveness, dhRti or resoluteness, dayA or compassion, Arjava or simplicity, and mitAhAra or eating little. The AcAra or behaviour of a sAdhaka or spiritual aspirant was focused on the parmArthika or beyond the material world. It is what is referred to as niHzreyasa or called nivrittilakSaNa.

To summarize, yama and niyama are practices for spiritual aspirants that are consistent with the practices of adhyAtma derived from the bhagavadgItA . AhiMsA, satya, zauca, santoSa, and tapaH are also presented in the bhagavadgItA as daivik sampadA or divine virtues in canto 16 (verses 1–3), which are to be cultivated by all aspirants of spirituality. As noted above, svAdhyAya is referred to as tapaH of speech, and tapaH is also a daivika sampadA. Thus, there is much convergence about the practice of adhyAtma in the bhagavadgItA and pAtaJjalayogasUtra.

Behavioural Anchors of adhyAtma: pramukh swAmIjI as an Exemplar

pramukh swAmIjI was born on December 7, 1921, as zAantIlAl patel, in chAnsad, gujarAt, India. He left the world or returned to akSardhAma on August 13, 2016, when he was visiting sAlaGpur, gujarAt. He was blessed by zAstrIji mahArAj, his adhyAtmika or spiritual guru, at birth, and showed interest in pursuing a monastic life from early years. He was invited by zAstriji mahArAj to join the monastic order on November 7, 1939, and with the permission of his parents he left home right away. He received his pArzad dikSA at amblivADI pol in amdAbAd on November 22, 1939, and was called zAnti bhagat. He later received bhAgvati dikSA and was initiated as a sAdhu on January 10, 1940, at the akSar Deri in gonDal, gujarAt. He received the name nArAyaNaswarUpadAs (Shelat 2005). As a sAdhu, he took the five vows that sAdhus in his sampradAya or monastic order observe: nizkAma (or celibacy), nirlobha (not to touch money, not to keep possessions, or have others keep them on one’s behalf; complete non-covetousness), nisswAda (or non-taste; sAdhus mix food in a wooden bowl and then add a little water to wash the taste before eating it), nissneha (or non-attachment; not to become lovingly attached to anyone other than God; renunciation of one’s native place and near relatives; the sAdhus never meet their mother after taking bhAgvati dikSA), and nirmAna (or humility). The sAdhus also commit to a lifelong service to God and humanity, which he showed in his everyday life to the end. A strict practice of nizkAma entails renouncing the contact of women through mind, body, and speech: (1) not to listen to talks by women; (2) not to talk about women; (3) not to talk to women; (4) not to indulge in entertainment with women; (5) not to intentionally look at women; (6) not to think about women; (7) not to attempt to secure the company of women; and (8) not to have sexual contact with women.

He was appointed pramukh or president of BAPS by zAstrIji mahArAj on May 21, 1950, at the age of 28 despite his multiple refusals, in humility, in the past. His austere practice of the vow of nirmAna could be seen when he was cleaning utensils in the evening the day he was appointment pramukh (akAarvatsaldAs 2007). He worked under the guidance of yogiji mahArAj as pramukh, and both as guru of the sampradAya and pramukh from January 23, 1971, until he returned to akSardhAma on August 13, 2016. During his tenure as pramukh, BAPS became an international organization with 3850 centres all over the world, and over a million devotees who are vegetarians practise fidelity, and do not take alcohol or other addictive substances. The devotees begin their day with pujA and japa (chanting), serve regularly as volunteers, and many donate 10 per cent of their income to support the temple and its service activities.

Many biographical accounts of pramukh swAmijI are available. In this section, a number of quotes are excerpted from the writings of mahant swAmijI, the current president of BAPS, who is himself an exemplar practitioner. Key words that characterize how spiritual practitioners act in society are presented in bold face, and then synthesized and summarized at the end.

“Constantly immersed in an ocean of other people’s problems, he has never become irritated or ruffled. His speech has never become rude or harsh. On the contrary, he has become more and more generous and friendly.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 63)

“An open, straight-forward life . Never egotistic. Never has he tried to portray himself as great; never has he tried to make a show of his talents; never has he tried to pull others down.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 60)

“[N]o matter who he meets, he always views others with respect. He always shows genuine love no matter how many times the individual return[s] with problems.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 60)

“He honestly believes that his work is devotion to God . He feels that God is watching.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 58)

When the General Secretary of BAPS elaborated upon the tremendous growth experienced by BAPS, he emphasized “greater importance of internal progress as compared to external progress” by stating that “We must maintain our vows, our saintliness and a spirit of service.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 58)

“Spiritually he is of an extremely lofty level and yet he remains quiet, non-boasting. Yet, even with his quiet, he can move thousands around him into action.” (swAmI AtmanAnanda quoted in mahant swAmI 1997, 56)

“His distinguishing qualities are his simplicity, straightforwardness, and openness. Through such a pure life he is constantly inspiring others.” (rAmaswarUpa zAstrI quoted in mahant swAmI 1997, 56)

“He is the essence of simplicity. Even in his talks there is no show through flowery language; we don’t find complexities in thoughts; no attempts to appear big.” (mohanbhAI patel quoted in mahant swAmI 1997, 57)

“He has always put aside his greatness and taken any available opportunity to serve others.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 57)

“He has no hypocrisy or deception. He does not have the slightest trace of ego (p. 51).” “He is extremely honest. He is absolutely pure.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 55)

We can identify the following ten individual level or personal behavioural anchors from the above: (i) quiet, non-boasting, (ii) simplicity (straightforwardness, openness), (iii) honest (no hypocrisy or deception), (iv) no ego absolutely pure; not portraying himself as great, (v) not showing off talents, (vi) never become irritated or ruffled, (vii) never become rude or harsh, (viii) generous and friendly, (ix) work is devotion to God, and (x) God is watching.

We can also identify five other related behavioural anchors: (i) views others with respect, (ii) shows genuine love, (iii) never pulls others down, (iv) serves others, inspires others, and (v) can move thousands around him into action. There is also an organization-related behavioural anchor—internal progress is more important than external progress. These behavioural anchors are consistent with the ones identified from the bhagavadgItA and pAtaJjalayogasUtra, thus providing convergence and enrichment of the construct of adhyAtma.

Discussion

The five vows that pramukh swAmIji practised all his life—nizkAmi vartmAn, nirlobhi vartmAn, nisswAdI vartmAn, nissnehI vartmAna, and nirmAnI vartmAn—closely resemble yama and niyama proposed in pAtaJjalayogasUtra. nizkAmi captures both brahmacarya and zauca of manas; nirlobhI captures aparigraha, asteya, and zauca of manas; nisswAdI captures tapaH of the senses, especially taste, and santoSa; nissnehI captures aparigraha; and nirmAnI captures zauca of manas. Thus, we see convergence between micro-world and life-world, providing credence to the practice-related aspects of adhyAtma. Similarly, we can find convergence between the characteristics that refer to adhyAtma as a practice in the bhagavadgItA and the daily life of pramukh swAmIjI. AdhyAtma is about centring the mind on the Atman and pramukh swAmIji was always focused on ThAkurji. When he was recognized in the British Parliament, instead of standing up to receive the accolade, he asked the accompanying sAdhu, who was carrying ThAkurji, to stand. When Bill Clinton, past president of the United States, commented that ThAkurji was a symbol of God, pramukh swAmIjI corrected him by saying that ThAkurjI was not a symbol, but God in person.

AdhyAtma is associated with a nomological network of other practices like having no pride, delusion, attachment, or desire that lead to mokSa which are supported in the austere vows pramukh swAmIjI has practised all his life. Similarly, other practices like being free of all duality such as happiness and sorrow, to act without agency or as the servant of God, practices noted in the bhagavadgItA , are supported in the life of pramukh swAmIjI who always acted with a view that “God is watching.” Finally, adhyAtma is the inward-looking process that leads to find pleasure, contentment, and satisfaction in Atman, which is also supported in the life of pramukh swAmIji in that he emphasized internal progress over external progress as noted above. The bhagavadgItA also exemplifies an adhyAtmika person as one who interacts energetically with the outside world without neglecting it or getting snared in it, which was amply exemplified in the life of pramukh swAmIjI. Thus, we can see a convergence in the construct of adhyAtma and its practice in the micro-world and life-world.

India has a long tradition of adhyAtma or spirituality (Bhawuk 2003, 2011, 2012, 2019a, b). Moore (1967) distilled 17 themes from a thorough study and analyses of Indian philosophical thoughts. The most important theme, he concluded, was spirituality—“a universal and primary concern for, and almost a preoccupation with, matters of spiritual significance” (p. 12). In stating how closely Indian philosophy is related to life, the general agreement seems to be that truth should be realized, rather than simply known intellectually. This further emphasizes and clarifies adhyAtma or spirituality as the way of living, to not merely know the truth but to become one with the truth (Sheldon 1951).

The Indian concept of self consists of gross and subtle elements, which can be further categorized as physical, social, and metaphysical selves (Bhawuk 2011). More specifically, in the Indian world view there is a social self that is ever-expanding by additions of various social roles and attributes. Though it is socially constructed, it has concrete attributes and also psychological characteristics. The physical self and sense organs are the grossest. The internal self that consists of ahaGkAra, manas, and buddhi is also called antaHkaraNaFootnote 19 or the internal organ or agent. Beyond all this is Atman, which is the subtlest (Bhawuk 2011). Thus, the very concept of self is affiliated to adhyAtma or spirituality in the Indian world view.

There is general agreement that the metaphysical self, Atman, is the real self. This metaphysical self is embodied in a biological or physical self, and situated, right at birth, in a social structure as a result of past karma . The importance of the metaphysical self is reflected in the belief that of all the living beings, human beings are the only ones that can pursue mokSa (or liberation), enlightenment, jJAna (or knowledge), or self-realization, which is presented as the highest pursuit of human life. Most Indians, including Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, and people of many other religious groups believe that they go through many life forms on their way to ultimatum liberation, and the pursuit of self-realization is a common shared belief. Thus, adhyAtma or spirituality is embedded in social life and karma or work in India.

Spirituality, which emerges as the highest desideratum of human living and pursuit in Indian culture, is not only captured in the concept of self, but also in the normative prescription about how to lead one’s life in phases. The last two phases (vAnaprastha or forest-dwelling and sannyAsa or monkhood) of life are clearly dedicated to the pursuit of spiritual advancement, and of the four pursuits of life recommended by tradition, which include dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kAma (pleasure), and mokSa (release from birth and death cycle), both dharma and mokSa are related to adhyAtma or spirituality.

Bhawuk (in press) emphasized that the Indian spiritual value emphasizes the concept of jIvanmukta or being free while living in the material world, and so the material world is not neglected in the Indian ethos. It is this love for the material that is captured in the love for gold jewellery, silk, hundreds of varieties of food, music, movies, and so forth in India. Therefore, the focus on spirituality in Indian culture should not be construed as the neglect of material world. AdhyAtma is about living in the world without getting snared in it as is succinctly captured in the bhagavadgItA (verse 5.10Footnote 20).

The commonality between Hinduism and other religions (e.g., Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, and others) lies in the path of devotion (see Bhawuk 2011, chap. 7) followed in Hinduism and other religions. The path of devotion is a practice in which one surrenders oneself to kRSNa, rAma, ziva, or durgA in Hinduism; to Jesus in Christianity (i.e., taking Jesus as one’s saviour); to Allah in Islam (praying five times and following the five pillars of Islam: shahada or faith, salat or prayer, zakat or charity, sawm or fasting, and Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca); and to waheguru in Sikhism. Surrendering the physical-psychological-social self to the divine was noted above as a characteristic of adhyAtma or spirituality. In advait vedAnta, this is achieved through the cultivation of neti-neti or “I am not this-I am not this,” which leads to the erasure of the physical-psychological-social self, and what is left is the AdhyAtmika or spiritual self or Atman. In Buddhism, the same process of neti-neti is used to achieve the erasure of self, what the Buddhists refer to as anatta, through the chanting of mantra and meditation. Thus, it is no surprise that religious diversity founded on spirituality has been the core of Indian culture for millennia (Bhawuk 2003, 2011, 2012, 2019a, b, in press).

The implications of adhyAtma or spirituality in social life can be seen in how many human hours are spent in holy places like tirupati, haridwAr, RSikeza, vAraNasi, zirdi, rAmezwaram, and so forth, which led Bhawuk (in press) to call India the spiritual capital of the world. He also noted the commingling of spirituality and social entrepreneurship as seen in the growth of spirituality-based organizations led by spiritual leaders like ammA, rAmadeva bAbA, sadguru, and zri zri ravizankar. India is also a wonderful destination for spirituality-based tourism, and economic reform has opened India so that people can travel to India freely, which is likely to help the spiritual aspirants visiting India for their sAdhanA or practice. In the increasingly stressful world, meditation and yoga may provide relief and help foster well-being, and India could lead the world with its spiritual heritage. And, finally, India also offers a spirituality-based model of anti-terrorism philosophy through the integration of various religious faiths present in India and the teachings of the Sufi saints. Thus, adhyAtma or spirituality is a comprehensive and meaningful construct that can help us study many aspects of Indian culture, and also facilitate cross-cultural comparisons to enrich global psychology .