Abstract
Biosurfactant (BS)/bioemulsifier (BE) produced by varied microorganisms exemplify immense structural/functional diversity and consequently signify the involvement of particular molecular machinery in their biosynthesis. The present chapter aims to compile information on molecular genetics of BS/BE production in microorganisms. Polymer synthesis in Acinetobacter species is controlled by an intricate operon system and its further excretion being controlled by enzymes. Quorum sensing system (QSS) plays a fundamental role in rhamnolipid and surfactin synthesis. Depending upon the cell density, signal molecules (autoinducers) of regulatory pathways accomplish the biosynthesis of BS. The regulation of serrawettin production by Serratia is believed to be through non ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) and N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) encoded by QSS located on mobile transposon. This regulation is under positive as well as negative control of QSS operon products. In case of yeast and fungi, glycolipid precursor production is catalyzed by genes that encode enzyme cytochrome P450 monooxygenase. BS/BE production is dictated by genes present on the chromosomes. This chapter also gives a glimpse of recent biotechnological developments which helped to realize molecular genetics of BS/BE production in microorganisms. Hyper-producing recombinants as well as mutant strains have been constructed successfully to improve the yield and quality of BS/BE. Thus promising biotechnological advances have expanded the applicability of BS/BE in therapeutics, cosmetics, agriculture, food, beverages and bioremediation etc. In brief, our knowledge on genetics of BS/BE production in prokaryotes is extensive as compared to yeast and fungi. Meticulous and concerted study will lead to an understanding of the molecular phenomena in unexplored microbes. In addition to this, recent promising advances will facilitate in broadening applications of BS/BE to diverse fields. Over the decades, valuable information on molecular genetics of BS/BE has been generated and this strong foundation would facilitate application oriented output of the surfactant industry and broaden its use in diverse fields. To accomplish our objectives, interaction among experts from diverse fields likes microbiology, physiology, biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics is indispensable.
Access provided by Autonomous University of Puebla. Download to read the full chapter text
Chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Keywords
- Pseudomonas Aeruginosa
- Serratia Marcescens
- Biosurfactant Production
- Cytochrome P450 Reductase
- Surfactin Production
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
References
Patel P, Desai AJ. Biosurfactant production by Pseudomonas aeruginosa GS3 from molasses. Lett Appl Microbiol 1997; 25:91–94
Makkar RS, Comeotra SS. Utilization of molasses for biosurfactant production by two Bacillus strains at thermophilic conditions. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1997; 74:887–889
Raza ZA, Khan MS, Khalid ZM. Physicochemical and surface-active properties of biosurfactant produced using molasses by a Pseudomonas aeruginosa mutant. J Environ Sci Health Part A 2007; 42:73–80
Rodrigues L, Banat IM, Teixeira J et al. Biosurfactants: potential applications in medicine. J Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2006; 57:609–618
Soberon-Chavez G, Aguirre-Ramirez M, Ordonez L. Is Pseudomonas aeruginosa only “Sensing Quorum”? Crit Rev Microbiol 2005; 31(3):171–182
Gautam KK, Tyagi VK. Microbial surfactants: A review. J Oleo Sci 2006; 55(4):155–166
Kokare CR, Kadam SS, Mahadik KR et al. Studies on bioemulsifier production from marine Streptomyces sp. S1 Indian J Biotechnol 2007; 6(1):78–84
Satpute SK, Bhawsar BD, Dhakephalkar PK et al. Assessment of different screening methods for selecting biosurfactant producing marine bacteria. Indian J Marine Sciences 2008; 37(3):243–250
Satpute SK, Dhakephalkar PK, Chopade BA. Biosurfactants and bioemulsifiers in hydrocarbon biodegradation and spilled oil bioremediation. Indo-Italian brain storming workshop on technology transfer for industrial applications of novel methods and materials for environmental problem 2005; 1–18
Fiechter A. Biosurfactant moving towards industrial applications. Trends Biotechnol 1992; 10:208–217
Desai AJ, Patel RN. Advances in biosurfactant production: A step forward to commercial applications J Sci Ind Res 1994; 53:619–629
Desai JD, Banat IM. Microbial production of surfactants and their commercial potential. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 1997; 61(1):47–64
Peypoux F, Bonmatin JM, Wallach J. Recent trends in the biochemistry of surfactin. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1999; 51:553–563
Lang S, Wullbrandt D. Rhamnose lipids-biosynthesis, microbial production and application potential Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1999; 51:22–32
Maier RM, Soberon-Chavez G. Pseudomonas aeruginosa rhamnolipids: biosynthesis and potential applications Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2000; 54:625–633
Ron E, Rosenberg EZ. Natural role of biosurfactants. J Environ Microbiol 2001; 3(4):229–236
Bodour AA, Maier RM. Biosurfactant: types, screening methods and applications. In: Bitton G, ed Encyclopedia of Environmental Microbiology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002:750–770
Maier RM. Biosurfactant: evolution and diversity in bacteria. Adv Appl Microbiol 2003; 52:101–121
Inge NA, Bogaert V, Saerens K et al. Microbial production and application of sophorolipids. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2007; 76:23–34
Sullivan E. Molecular genetics of biosurfactant production. Curr Opinion Biotechnol 1998; 9:263–269
Margesin R, Schinner F. Bioremediation (natural attenuation and biostimulation) of diesel-oil contaminated soil in an alpine glacier skiing area. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67:3127–3133
Olivera NL, Commendatore MG, Delgado O et al. Microbial characterization and hydrocarbon biodegradation potential of natural bilge waste microflora. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2003; 30:542–548
Gunther NW, Nunez A, Fett W et al. Production of rhamnolipids by Pseudomonas chlororaphis, a nonpathogenic bacterium. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005; 71(5):2288–2293
Turkovskaya OV, Dmitrieva TV, Muratova AY. A biosurfactant-Producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa Strain. Appl Biochem Microbiol 2001; 37(1):71–75
Hommel RK, Ratledge C. Biosynthetic mechanisms of low molecular weight surfactants and their precursor molecules. In: Kosaric N, eds. Biosurfactant: Production, Properties, Applications. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc, 1993:3–63
Syldatk C, Wagner F. Production of biosurfactants. In: Kosaric N, Cairns WL, Gray, NCC, eds. Bio-Surfactants and Biotechnology. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc, 1987:89–120
Kitamoto D, Isoda H, Nakahara T. Functions and potential applications of glycolipid biosurfactant— from energy-saving materials to gene delivery carriers. J Biosci Bioengg 2002; 94:187–201
Wei YH, Chu IM. Mn 2+improves surfactin production by Bacillus subtilis Biotechnol Lett 2002; 24:479–482
Bonilla M, Olivaro C, Corona M et al. Production and characterization of a new bioemulsifier from Pseudomonas putida ML2. J Appl Microbiol 2005; 98:456–463
Maneerat S, Takeshi B, Kazuo H et al. A novel crude oil emulsifier excreted in the culture supernatant of a marine bacterium, Myroides sp. strain SM1. Appl Microbiol Biotechno 2006; 70(2):254–259
Shete AM. Studies on isolation, biochemical and physiological characteristics, antibiotic and bioemulsifier production and plasmid genetics of marine Acinetobacter 2003. A PhD. Thesis submitted to the University of Pune, Pune, India
Dubey K, Juwarkar A. Determination of genetic basis for biosurfactant production in distillery and curd whey wastes utilizing Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain B2. Indian J Biotechnol 2004; 3(1):74–81
Botgelmez-Tinaz G. Quorum sensing in Gram-negative bacteria. Turk J Biol 2003; 7:85–93
Chopade BA. Genetics of antibiotic resistance in Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. 1986. PhD. thesis submitted to University of Nottingham, England, Great Britain
Patil JR, Chopade BA. Distribution and in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility of Acinetobacter species on the skin of healthy humans. Natl Med J India 2001; 14:204–208
Patil JR, Chopade BA. Studies on bioemulsifier production by Acinetobacter strains isolated from healthy human skin. J Appl Microbiol 2001; 91(2):290–298
Saha SC, Chopade BA. Effect of food preservatives on Acinetobacter genospecies isolated from meat J Food Sci Technol 2002; 39(1):26–32
Shete AM, Wadhawa GW, Banat IM et al. Mapping of patents on bioemulsifier and biosurfactant: A review. J Sci Indust Res 2006; 65:91–115
Sar N, Rosenberg E. Emulsifier production by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus strains. Curr Microbiol 1983;9:309–314
Foght JM, Gutnick DL, Westlake DWS. Effect of emulsan on biodegradation of crude oil by pure and mixed bacterial cultures. Appl Environ Microbiol 1989; 55:36–42
Patil, JR, Chopade BA. Bioemulsifier production by Acinetobacter strains isolated from healthy human skin. United States 2005. Patent No. 20050163739
Belsky I, Gutnick DL, Rosenberg E. Emulsifier of Arthrobacter RAG-1: determination of emulsifier-bound fatty acids. FEBS Lett 1979; 101:175–178
Rosenberg E, Zuckerberg A, Rubinovitz C et al. Emulsifier of Arthrobacter RAG-1: isolation and emulsifying properties. Appl Environ Microbiol 1979; 37:402–408
Zuckerberg A, Diver A, Peeri Z et al. Emulsifier of Arthrobacter RAG-1: chemical and physical properties Appl Environ Microbiol 1979; 37:414–420
Gorkovenko A, Zhang J, Gross RA et al. Bioengineering of emulsifier structure: emulsan analogs. Can J Microbiol 1997; 43:384–390
Whitfield C, Roberts IS. Structure, assembly and regulation of expression of capsules in Escherichia coli. Mol Microbiol 1999; 31:1307–1319
Whitfield C, Paiment A. Biosynthesis and assembly of group 1capsular polysaccharides in Escherichia coli and related extracellular polysaccharides in other bacteria. Carbohyd Res 2003; 338:2491–2502
Nakar D, Gutnick DL. Analysis of the wee gene cluster responsible for the biosynthesis of the polymeric bioemulsifier from the oil-degrading strain Acinetobacter woffii RAG-1. Microbiol 2001; 147:1937–1946
Nakar D, Gutnick DL. Involvement of a protein tyrosine kinase in production of the polymeric bioemulsifier emulsan from the oil-degrading strain Acinetobacter lwoffii RAG-1. J Bacteriol 2003; 185(3):1001–1009
Nesper J, Hill CM, Paiment A et al. Translocation of group 1 capsular polysaccharide in Escherichia coli serotype K30. Structural and functional analysis of the outer membrane lipoprotein Wza. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:49763–49772
Gorkovenko A, Zhang J, Gross RA et al. Biosynthesis of emulsan analogs: direct incorporation of exogenous fatty acids. Proc Am Chem Soc Div Polym Sci Eng 1995; 72:92–93
Gorkovenko A, Zhang J, Gross RA et al. Control of unsaturated fatty acid substitutes in emulsans Carbohydr Polym 1999; 39:79–84
Zhang J, Gorkovenko A, Gross RA et al. Incorporation of 2-hydroxyl fatty acids by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus RAG-1 to tailor emulsan structure. Int J Bio Macromol 1997; 20:9–21
Johri AK, Blank W, Kaplan DL. Bioengineered emulsans from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus RAG-1 transposon mutants. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2002; 59:217–223
Kaplan DL, Fuhrman J, Gross RA. Emulsan adjuvant immunization formulations and use. United States Patent 2004. Application No. 20040265340
Shabtai Y, Gutnick DL. Enhanced emulsan production in mutants of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus RAG-1 selected for resistance to cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. Appl Environ Microbiol 1986; 52:146–151
Alon RN, Gutnick DL. Esterase from the oil degrading Acinetobacter lwoffii RAG-1: sequence analysis and over expression in Escherichia coli. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1993; 12:275–280
Dams-Kozlowska H, Kaplan DL. Protein engineering of wzc to generate new emulsan analogs. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007; 73(12):4020–4028
Elkeles A, Rosenberg E, Ron EZ. Production and secretion of the polysaccharide biodispersan of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus A2 in protein secretion mutants. Appl Environ Microbiol 1994; 60(12):4642–4645
Bach H, Berdichevsky Y, Gutnick D. An exocellular protein from the oil-degrading microbe Acinetobacter venetianus RAG-1 enhances the emulsifying activity of the polymeric bioemulsifier emulsan Appl Environ Microbiol 2003; 69(5):2608–2615
Tahzibi A, Kamal F, Assadi MM. Improved production of rhamnolipids by a Pseudomonas aeruginosa mutant. Iran Biomed J 2004; 8(1):25–31
de Souza JT, de Boer M, de Waard P et al. Biochemical, Genetic and Zoosporicidal Properties of Cyclic Lipopeptide Surfactants Produced by Pseudomonas fluorescens. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003; 69(12):7161–7172
Zosim Z, Rosenberg E, Gutnick DL. Changes in hydrocarbon emulsification specificity of the polymeric bioemulsifier emulsan: effects of alkanols. Colloid Polym Sci 1986; 264:218–223
Shabtai Y, Gutnick DL. Exocellular esterase and emulsan release from the cell surface of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. J Bacteriol 1985; 161:1176–1181
Franco AV, Liu D, Reeves PR. The Wzz (cld) protein in Escherichia coli: amino acid sequence variation determines O-antigen chain length specificity. J Bacteriol 1998; 180:670–2675
Daniels C, Morona R. Analysis of Shigella flexneri wzz (Rol) function by mutagenesis and cross-linking: wzz is able to oligomerize. Mol Microbiol 1999; 34:181–194
Leahy JG, Jones-Meehan JM, Pullas EL et al. Transposon mutagenesis in Acinetobacter calcoaceticus RAG-1. J Bacteriol 1993; 175:1838–1840
Reddy PG, Allon R, Mevarech M et al. Cloning and expression in Escherichia coli of an esterase-coding gene from the oil degrading bacterium Acinetobacter calcoaceticus RAG-1. Gene 1989; 76:145–152
Barkay T, Navon-Venezia S, Ron EZ et al. Enhancement of solubilization and biodegradation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons by the bioemulsifier alasan. Appl Environ Microbiol 1999; 65:2697–2702
Navon-Venezia Z, Zosim A, Gottlieb R et al. Alasan, a new bioemulsifier from Acinetobacter radioresistens Appl Environ Microbiol 1995; 61(9):3240–3244
Bekerman R, Segal G, Ron EZ et al. The AlnB protein of the bioemulsan alasan is a peroxiredoxin Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2005; 66:536–541
Toren A, Navon-Venezia S, Ron EZ et al. Emulsifying activity of purified alasan proteins from Acinetobacter radioresistens KA53. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67:1102–1106
Toren A, Orr E, Paitan Y et al. The Active Component of the Bioemulsifier Alasan from Acinetobacter radioresistens KA53 is an OmpA-Like Protein. J Bacteriol 2002; 184(1):165–170
Toren A, Segal G, Ron EZ et al. Structure—function studies of the recombinant protein bioemulsifier AlnA. Environ Microbiol 2002; 4(5):257–261
Ofori-Darko E, Zavros Y, Rieder G et al. An OmpA-like protein from Acinetobacter spp. stimulates gastrin and interleukin-8 promoters. Infect Immun 2000; 68:3657–3666
Rusansky S, Avigad R, Michaeli S et al. Effects of mixed nitrogen sources on biodegradation of phenol by immobilized Acinetobacter sp. strain W-17. Appl Environ Microbiol 1987; 53:1918–1923
Rosenberg E, Rubinovitz C, Gottlieb A et al. Production of biodispersan by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus A2. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:317–322
Rosenberg E, Rubinovitz C, Legmann R et al. Purification and chemical properties of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus A2 biodispersan. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:323–326
Rosenberg E, Schwartz Z, Tenenbaum A et al. Microbial polymer that changes the surface properties of limestone; effect of biodispersan in grinding limestone and making paper. J Dispersion Sci Technol 1989; 10:241–250
Kaplan N, Rosenberg E. Exopolysaccharide distribution of and bioemulsifier production by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus BD4 and BD413. Appl Environ Microbiol 1982; 44:1335–1341
Ilan O, Bloch Y, Frankel G et al. Protein tyrosine kinases in bacterial pathogens are associated with virulence and production of exopolysaccharide. The EMBO J 1999; 18:3241–3248
Jarvis FG, Johnson MJ. A glycolipid produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Am Chem Soc 1949; 71:4124–4126
Bergstrom S, Theorell H, Davide H. On a metabolic product of Pseudomonas pyocyanea, pyolipic acid, active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Arkiv Kemi 1947; 23A(13):1–15
Hauser G, Karnovsky ML. Rhamnose and rhamnolipid biosynthesis by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Biol Chem 1957; 224:91–105
Burger MM, Glaser L, Burton RM. The enzymatic synthesis of a rhamnose containing glycolipid by extracts of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Biol Chem 1963; 238:2595–2602
Lang S, Wagner F. Structure and properties of biosurfactants. In: Kosaric N, Cairns WL, Gray NCC, eds. Biosurfactants and Biotechnology. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1987:21–47
Rendell NB, Taylor GW, Somerville M et al. Characterization of Pseudomonas rhamnolipids. Biochem Biophys Acta 1990; 16:189–193
Ochsner UA, Fiechter A, Reiser J. Isolation, characterization and expression in Escherichia coli of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa rhlA genes encoding rhamnosylatransferas involved in rhamnolipid biosurfactant sysnthesis genes. J Biol Chem 1994; 269:19787–19795
Ochsner UA, Koch AK, Fiechter A et al. Isolation and characterization of a regulatory gene affecting rhamnolipid biosurfactant synthesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 1994; 176(7):2044–2054
Deziel E, Lepine F, Milot S et al. rhlA is required for the production of a novel biosurfactant promoting swarming motility in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: 3-(3-hydroxy-alkanoyloxy) alkanoic acids (HAAs), the precursors of rhamnolipids. Microbiol 2003; 149:2005–2013
Rahim R, Ochsner UA, Olvera C et al. Cloning and functional characterization of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa rhlC gene that encodes rhamnosyltransferase 2, an enzyme responsible for di-rhamnolipid biosynthesis. Mol Microbiol 2001; 40(3):708–718
Pamp SJ, Tolker-Nielsen T. Multiple roles of biosurfactant in structural biofilm development by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 2007; 189:2531–2539
Latifi A, Winson MK, Foglino M et al. Multiple homologues of LuxR and LuxI control expression of virulence determinants and secondary metabolites through quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. Mol Microbiol 1995; 17:333–343
Stover CK, Pham XQ, Erwin AL et al. Complete genome sequence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, an opportunistic pathogen. Nature 2000; 31:959–964
Mulligan CN, Gibbs BF. Correlation of nitrogen metabolism with biosurfactant production by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Appl Environ Microbiol 1989; 55:3016–3019
Bazire A, Dheilly A, Diab F et al. Osmotic stress and phosphate limitation alter production of cell-to-cell signal molecules and rhamnolipid biosurfactant by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2005; 253(1):125–131
Ochsner UA, Reiser J, Fiechter A et al. Production of Pseudomonas aeruginosa rhamnolipid biosurfactant in heterologous hosts. Appl Environ Microbiol 1995; 61:3503–3506
Pesci EC, Pearson JP, Seed PC et al. Regulation of las and rhl quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa J Bacteriol 1997; 179:3127–3132
Lazdunski AM, Ventre I, Sturgis JN. Regulatory circuits and communication in Gram-negative bacteria Nat Rev Microbiol 2004; 2:581–592
Ochsner UA, Reiser J. Autoinducer-mediated regulation of rhamnolipid biosurfactant synthesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 92:6424–6428
Albus AM, Pesci EC, Runyen-Janecky LJ et al. Vfr control quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa J Bacteriol 1997; 179:3928–3935
Latifi A, Foglino M, Tanaka K et al. A hierachical quorum sensing cascade in Pseudomonas aeruginosa links the transcriptional activators LasR and RhlR (VsmR) to expression of the stationary-phase sigma factor RpoS. Mol Microbiol 1996; 21:1137–1146
Medina G, Juärez K, Diäz R et al. Transcriptional regulation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa rhlR, encoding a quorum-sensing regulatory protein. Microbiol 2003; 149:3073–3081
Holden PA, LaMontagne MG, Bruce AK et al. Assesing the role Pseudomonas aeruginosa: surface active gene expression in hexadecane biodegradation in sand. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002; 68(5):2509–2518
Schlictman D, Kubo M, Shankar S et al. Regulation of nucleoside diphosphate kinase and secretable virulence factors in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Roles of algR2 and algH. J Bacteriol 1995; 177(9):2469–2474
Lequette Y, Greenberg EP. Timing and localization of rhamnolipid synthesis gene expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. J Bacteriol 2005; 187(1):37–44
Campos-Garcí AJ, Caro AD, NäJera R et al. The Pseudomonas aeruginosa rhlG gene encodes an NADPH dependent β-Ketoacyl reductase which is specifically involved in rhamnolipid synthesis. J Bacteriol 1998; 180(17):4442–4451
Branny P, Pearson JP, Pesci EC et al. Inhibition of quorum sensing by a Pseudomonas aeruginosa dksA homologue. J Bacteriol 2001; 183(5):1531–1539
Dubern JF, Lagendijk EL, Lugtenberg BJJ et al. The heat shock genes dnaK, dnaJ and grpE are involved in regulation of putisolvin biosynthesis in Pseudomonas putida PCL1445. J Bacteriol 2005; 187(17):5967–5976
Huber B, Riedel K, Hentzer M et al. The cep quorum-sensing system of Burkholderia cepacia H111 controls biofilm formation and swarming motility. Microbiol 2001; 147:2517–2528
Noordman WH, Janssen DB. Rhamnolipid stimulates uptake of hydrophobic compounds by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002; 68:4502–4508
Raza ZA, Khan MS, Khalid ZM et al. Production kinetics and tensioactive characteristics of biosurfactant from a Pseudomonas aeruginosa mutant grown on waste frying oils. Biotechnol Lett 2006; 28(20):1623–1631.
Raza ZA, Khan MS, Khalid ZM et al. Production of Biosurfactant using different hydrocarbons by Pseudomonas aeruginosa EBN-8 mutant. Z Naturforsch 2006; 61c:87–94.
Mulligan CN, Mahmourides G, Gibbs BF. Biosurfactant production by chloramphenicol-tolerant strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Biotechnol 1989; 12:37–44.
Mulligan CN, Mahmourides G, Gibbs BF. The influence of phosphate metabolism on biosurfactant production by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Biotechnol 1989; 12:199–210.
Beal R, Betts WB. Role of rhamnolipid biosurfactant in the uptake and mineralization of hexadecane in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 2000; 89:158–168.
Shrive GS, Inguva S, Gunnam S. Rhamnolipid biosurfactant enhancement of hexadecane biodegradation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Mol Marine Biol Biotechnol 1995; 4:331–337.
Koch AK, Kappeli O, Fiechter A et al. Hydrocarbon assimilation and biosurfactant production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa mutants. J Bacteriol 1991; 173(13):4212–4219.
Al-Tahhan RA, Sandrin TR, Bodour AA et al. Rhamnolipid-induced removal of lipopolysaccharide from pseudomonas aeruginosa: effect on cell surface properties and interaction with hydrophobic substrates. Appl Environ Microbiol 2000; 66(8):3262–3268.
Iqbal S, Khalid ZM, Malik KA. Enhanced biodegradation and emulsification of crude oil and hyperproduction of biosurfactant by a gamma ray-induced mutant of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Lett Appl Microbiol 1995; 21(3):176–179.
Raza ZA, Khan MS, Khalid ZM. Evaluation of distant carbon sources in biosurfactant production by a gamma ray-induced Pseudomonas putida mutant. Process Biochem 2007; 42(4):686–692.
Koch AK, Reiser J, Kappeli O et al. Genetic construction of lactose-utilizing strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and their application in biosurfactant production. Biotechnol 1988; 6:1335–1339.
Flemming CA, Leung KT, Lee H et al. Survival of lux-lac-marked biosurfactant-producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa UG2L in soil monitored by nonselective plating and PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol 1994; 60(5):1606–1613.
Arima K, Kakinuma A, Tamura G. Surfactin, a crystalline lipopeptide surfactant produced by Bacillus subtilis: isolation, characterization and its inhibition of fibrin clot formation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1968; 31:488–494.
Cooper DG, Goldenberg BG. Surface-active agents from two Bacillus species. Appl Environ Microbiol 1987; 53:224–229.
Banat IM. The isolation of a thermophilic biosurfactant producing Bacillus Sp. Biotechnol Lett 1993; 15(6):591–594.
Kluge B, Vater J, Salnikow J et al. Studies on the biosynthesis of surfactin, a lipopeptide antibiotic from Bacillus subtilis ATCC 21332. FEBS Lett 1988; 231:107–110.
Nakano MM, Marahiel MA, Zuber P. Identification of a genetic locus required for biosynthesis of the lipopeptide antibiotic surfactin in Bacillus subtilis. J Bacteriol 1988; 170(12):5662–5668.
D’Souza C, Nakano M, Corbel N et al. Amino acid site mutations in amino—acid-activating domains of surfactin synthetase; Effects on surfactin production and competence development in Bacillus subtilis. J Bacteriol 1993; 173(11):3502–3510.
Galli G, Rodriguez F, Cosmina P et al. Characterization of the surfactin synthetase multi-enzyme complex. Biochem Biophys Acta 1994; 1205:19–28.
de Ferra F, Rodriguez F, Tortora O et al. Engineering of Peptide Synthetases key role of the thioesterase-like domain for efficient production of recombinant peptides. J Biol Chem 1997; 272(40):25304–25309.
Nakano MM, Corbell N, Besson J et al. Isolation and characterization of sfp: a gene that functions in the production of the lipopeptide biosurfactant, surfactin, in Bacillus subtilis. Mol Gen Genet 1992; 232(2):313–321.
Solomon JM, Lazazzera BA, Grossman AD. Purification and characterization of an extracellular peptide factor that affects two different developmental pathways in Bacillus subtilis. Genes Dev 1996; 10:2014–2024.
Solomon JM, Grossman AD. Who’s competent and when: regulation of natural genetic competence in bacteria. Trends Genet 1996; 12:150–155.
Magnuson R, Solomon J, Grossman AD. Biochemical and genetic characterization of a competence pheromone from B. subtilis. Cell 1994; 77(2):207–216.
Lazazzera BA, Solomon JM, Grossman AD. An exported peptide functions intracellularly to contribute to cell density signaling in B. subtilis. Cell 1997; 89:917–925.
Luttinger A, Hahn J, Dubnau D. Polynucleotide phosphorylase is necessary for competence development in Bacillus subtilis. Mol Microbiol 1996; 19:343–356.
Liu L, Nakano MM, Lee OH et al. Plasmid-amplified comS enhances genetic competence and suppresses sinR in Bacillus subtilis. J Bacteriol 1996; 178:5144–5152.
D’Souza C, Nakano MM, Zuber P. Identification of comS, a gene of the srfA operon that regulates the establishment of genetic competence in Bacillus subtilis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91(20):9397–9401.
Fabret C, Quentin Y, Guiseppi A et al. Analysis of errors in finished DNA sequences: the surfactin operon of Bacillus subtilis as an example. Microbiol 1995; 141:345–350.
Cosmina P, Rodriguez F, De Ferra F et al. Sequence and analysis of the genetic locus responsible for surfactin synthesis in Bacillus subtilis. Mol Microbiol 1993; 8:821–831.
Nakano MM, Magnuson R, Myers A et al. srfA is an operon required for surfactin production, competence development and efficient sporulation in Bacillus subtilis. J Bacteriol 1991; 173(5):1770–1778.
Hsieh FC, Li MC, Lin TC et al. Rapid detection and characterization of surfactin-producing Bacillus subtilis and closely related species based on PCR. Curr Microbiol 2004; 49:186–191.
Tsuge K, Ohata Y, Shoda M. Geneyer P, Involved in surfactin self-resistance in Bacillus subtilis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45(12):3566–3573.
Borchert S, Stachelhaus T, Arahiel MA. Induction of surfactin production in Bacillus subtilis by gsp, a gene located upstream of the gramicidin s operon in Bacillus brevis. J Bacteriol 1994; 176(8):2458–2462.
Fuma S, Fujishima Y, Corbell N et al. Nucleotide sequence of 5′ portion of srfA that contains the region required for competence establishment in Bacillus subtilis. Nucleic Acids Research 1993; 21(1):93–97.
Nakano MM, Xia LA, Zuber P. Transcription initiation region of the srfA operon, which is controlled by the comP-comA signal transduction system in Bacillus subtilis. J Bacteriol 1991; 173(17):5487–5493.
Nakano MM, Zuber P. Cloning and characterization of srfB, a regulatory gene involved in surfactin production and competence in Bacillus subtilis. J Bacteriol 1989; 171(10):5347–5353.
Steller S, Sokoll A, Wilde C et al. Initiation of surfactin biosynthesis and role of Srf-Dthioesterase protein. Biochem 2004; 43:11331–11343.
Stein T. Bacillus subtilis antibiotics: structures, syntheses and specific functions. Mol Microbiol 2005; 56(4):845–857.
Hamoen LW, Venema G, kuipers OP. Controlling competence in Bacillus subtilis; shared use of regulators. Microbiol 2003; 149:9–17.
Hamon MA, Lazazzera BA. The sporulation transcription factor ApoOA is required for biofilm development in Bacillus subtilis. Mol Microbiol 2001; 42:1199–1209.
Cosby WM, Vollenbroich D, Lee OH et al. Altered srf expression in Bacillus subtilis resulting from changes in culture pH is dependent on the Spo0K oligopeptide permease and the ComQX system of extracellular control. J Bacteriol 1998; 180(6):1438–1445.
Perego M, Higgins CF, Pearce SR et al. The oligopeptide transport system of Bacillus subtilis plays a role in the initiation of sporulation. Mol Microbiol 1991; 5:173–185.
Rudner DZ, Ledeaux JR, Ireton K et al. The spo0K locus of Bacillus subtilis is homologous to the oligopeptide permease locus and is required for sporulation and competence. J Bacteriol 1991; 173:1388–1398.
Kim HS, Kim SB, Park SH et al. Expression of sfp gene and hydrocarbon degradation by Bacillus subtilis. Biotechnol Lett 2000; 22:1431–1436.
Lee YK, Kim SB, Park CS et al. Chromosomal integration of sfp gene in Bacillus subtilis to enhance bioavailability of hydrophobic liquids. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2005; 67(6):789–794.
Morikawa M, Ito M, Imanaka T. Isolation of a new surfactin producer Bacillus pumilus A-1 and cloning and nucleotide sequence of the regulator gene, psf-1. J Ferm Bioengg 1992; 74(5):255–261.
Yakimov MM, Timmis KM, Wray V et al. Characterization of a new lipopeptide surfactant produced by thermotolerant and halotolerant subsurface Bacillus licheniformis BAS50. Appl Environ Microbiol 1995; 61:1706–1713.
Yakimov MM, Golyshin PN. ComA-dependant transcriptional activation of lichenysin A synthetase promoter in Bacillus subtilis cells. Biotechnol Prog 1997; 13:757–761.
Yakimov MM, Giuliano L, Timmis KN et al. Recombinant acylheptapeptide lichenysin: high level of production by Bacillus subtilis cells. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 2000; 2:217–224.
Lin SC, Lin KG, Lo CC et al. Enhanced biosurfactant production by a Bacillus licheniformis mutant. Enzyme Microb Technol 1998; 23:267–273.
Mulligan CN, Chow TYK, Gibbs BF. Surfactin production by a Bacillus subtilis mutant. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1989; 31:486–489.
Ohno A, Ano T, Shoda M. Production of a lipopeptide antibiotic, surfactin, by recombinant Bacillus subtilis in solid state fermentation. Biotechnol Bioeng 1995; 47:209–214.
Nakayama S, Takahashi S, Hirai M et al. Isolation of new variants of surfactin by a recombinant Bacillus subtilis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1997; 48:80–82.
Carrera P, Cosmina P, Grandi G. Eniricerche SPA., Milan, Italy. Mutant of Bacillus subtilis, United States Patent 1993. Application No. 5264363.
Carrera P, Cosmina P, Grandi G. Eniricerche SPA., Milan, Italy. Method of producing surfactin with the use of mutant of Bacillus subtilis. United States Patent 1993. Application No. 5227294.
Yoneda T, Yoshiaki M, Kazuo F et al. Showa Denko KK ( JP), Tokyo, Japan. Production process of surfactin, United States Patent 2006. Application No. 7011969.
Symmank H, Franke P, Saenger W et al. Modification of biologically active peptides: production of a novel lipohexapeptide after engineering of Bacillus subtilis surfactin synthetase. Protein Engg 2002; 115(11):913–921.
Nakano MM, Zuber P. Mutational analysis of the regulatory region of the srfA operon in Bacillus subtilis. J Bacteriol 1993; 175(10):3188–3191.
Reuter K, Mofid MR, Marahiel MA et al. Crystal structure of the surfactin synthetase-activating enzyme Sfp: a prototype of the 4′-phosphopantetheinyl transferase superfamily. The EMBO J 1999; 18(23):6823–6831.
Matsuyama T, Sogawa M, Yanot I. Direct colony thin-layer chromatography and rapid characterization of Serratia marcescens mutants defective in production of wetting agents. Appl Environ Microbiol 1987; 53(5):1186–1188.
Horng YT, Deng SC, Daykin M et al. The LuxR family protein SpnR functions as a negative regulator of N-acylhomoserine lactone-dependent quorum sensing in Serratia marcescens. Mol Microbiol 2002; 45:1655–1671.
Wei Y, Lai HC, Chen SU et al. Biosurfactant production by Serratia marcescens SS-1 and its isogenic strain SMΔR defective in SpnR, a quorum-sensing LuxR family protein. Biotechnol Lett 2004; 26:799–802.
Williams P, Camara M, Hardman A et al. Quorum sensing and the population-dependent control of virulence. Philos Trans R Soc London B Biol Sci 2000; 355:667–680.
Matsuyama T, Bhasin A, Harshey RM. Mutational analysis of flagellum-independent surface spreading of Serratia marcescens 274 on a low-agar medium. J Bacteriol 1995; 177:987–991.
Wei J, Soo PC, Horng YT et al. Regulatory roles of spnT, a novel gene located within transposon TnTIR. Biochem Biophy Res Comm 2006; 348:1038–1046.
Wei J, Tsai YH, Horng YT et al. A mobile quorum-sensing system in Serratia marcescens. J Bacteriol 2006; 188(4):1518–1525.
Li H, Tanikawa T, Sato Y et al. Serratia marcescens gene required for surfactant serrawettin W1 production encodes putative aminolipid synthetase belonging to nonribosomal peptide synthetase family. Microbiol Immunol 2005; 49(4):303–310.
Sunaga S, Li H, Sato Y et al. Identification and characterization of the pswP gene required for the parallel production of prodigiosin and serrawettin W1 in Serratia marcescens. Microbiol Immunol 2004; 48(10):723–728.
Tanikawa T, Nakagawa Y, Matsuyama T. Transcriptional downregulator HexS controlling prodigiosin and serrawettin W1 biosynthesis in Serratia marcescens. Microbiol Immunol 2006; 50(8):587–596.
Riedel K, Talker-Huiber D, Givskov M et al. Identification and characterization of a GDSL esterase gene located proximal to the swr quorum-sensing system of Serratia liquefaciens MG1. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003; 69(7):3901–3910.
Lindum PW, Anthoni U, Christophersen C et al. n-acyl-l-homoserine lactone autoinducers control production of an extracellular lipopeptide biosurfactant required for swarming motility of Serratia liquefaciens MG1. J Bacteriol 1998; 180(23):6384–6388.
Rosenberg M, Kjelleberg S. Hydrophobic interactions in bacterial adhesion. Adv Microb Ecol 1986; 9:353–393.
Ullrich C, Kluge B, Palacz Z et al. Cell-free biosynthesis of surfactin, a cyclic lipopeptide produced by Bacillus subtilis. Biochem 1991; 30:6503–6508.
Inge NA, Bogaert V, Develter D et al. Cloning and characterization of the NADPH cytochrome P450 reductase gene (CPR) from Candida bombicola. FEMS Yeast Res 2007; 7(6):922–928.
Solaiman DK, Ashby RD, Nunez A. Production of sophorolipids by Candida bombicola grown on soy molasses as substrate. Biotech Lett 2004; 26:1241–1245.
Solaiman D, Ashby RD, Foglia TA. Characterization and manipulation of genes in the biosynthesis of sophorolipids and poly (hydroxyalkanoates). In: Proceedings of the United States-Japan Cooperative program in natural resources, protein resources panel Annual Meeting 2004. 215–219.
Solaiman D, Ashby RD, Foglia TA et al. Biosurfactants from microbial fermentation of renewable substrates [abstract]. Industrial application of renewable resources—A Conference on Sustainable Technologies, American Oil Chemists’ Society 2004. 14.
Hommel RK, Huse K. Regulation of sophorose lipid production by Candida apicola. Biotechnol Lett 1993; 33:853–858.
Ashby RD, Solaiman D, Foglia TA. The use of fatty acid-esters to enhance free acid sophorolipid synthesis. Biotechnol Lett 2006; 28:253–260.
Zerkowski JA, Solaiman D. Polyhydroxy fatty acids derived from sophorolipids. J Amer Oil Chemists Soc 2007; 84(5):463–471.
Van Bogaert INN, Develter D, Soetaert W et al. Cloning and characterization of the NADPH cytochrome P450 reductase gene (CPR) from Candida bombicola. FEMS Yeast Res 2007; 7(6):922–928.
Nebert DW, Gonzalez FJ. P450 genes: structure, evolution and regulation. Ann Rev Biochem 1987; 56:945–993.
Esders TW, Light RJ. Characterization and in vivo production of three glycolipids from Candida bogoriensis: 13-glucopyranosylglucopyranosyloxydocosanoic acid and its mono-and diacetylated derivatives. J Lipid Res 1972; 13:663–671.
Esders TW, Light RJ. Glucosyl-and Acetyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of glycolipids from Candida bogoriensis. J Biol Chem 1972; 247:1375–1386.
Bucholtz ML, Light RJ. Acetylation of 13-sophorosyloxydocosanoic acid by an acetyltransferase purified from Candida bogoriensis. J Biol Chem 1976; 251(2):424–430.
Finerty WR. Genetics and biochemistry of biosurfactant synthesis in Arthrobacter species H-13-A Progress Report (Arthrobacter H-13-A): 1988. DOE/ER/10683-6.
Konishi M, Morita T, Fukuoka T et al. Production of different types of mannosylerythritol lipids as biosurfactant by the newly isolated yeast strains belonging to the genus Pseudozyma. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2007; 75:521–531.
Hewald S, Josephs K, Bölker M. Genetic analysis of biosurfactant production in Ustilago maydis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005; 71(6):3033–3040.
Hewald S, Linne U, Scherer M et al. Identification of a gene cluster for biosynthesis of mannosylerythritol lipids in the basidiomycetous fungus Ustilago maydis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006; 72(8):5469–5477.
Mukherjee S, Das P, Sen R. Towards commercial production of microbial surfactants. TRENDS Biotechnol 2006; 24(11):509–515.
Bodour AA, Miller-Maier R. x) Biosurfactants: types, screening methods and applications: In: Bitton G, ed. Encyclopedia of Environmental Microbiology. 1st ed. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2000:750–770.
Morita T, Konishi M, Fukuoka T et al. Discovery of Pseudozyma rugulosa NBRC10877 as a novel producer of the glycolipid biosurfactants, mannosylerythritol lipids based on rDNA sequence. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2006; 73(2):305–313.
Whiteley M, Lee KM, Greenberg EP. Identification of genes controlled by quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. PNAS 1999; 96(24):13904–13909.
Morita T, Habe H, Fukuoka T et al. Gene expression profiling and genetic engineering of a basidiomycetous yeast, Pseudozyma antarctica, which produces multifunctional and environmentally-friendly surfactants (biosurfactant). The XXIIIrd International conference on yeast genetics and molecular biology melbourne 2007. Australia 1–6.
Morita T, Konishi K, Fukuoka T et al. Microbial conversion of glycerol in to glycolipid biosurfactant, mannosylerythritol lipids by basidiomycete yeast Pseudozyma antarctica, JCM 1037. J Biosci Bioeng 2007; 104(1):78–81.
Inoh Y, Kitamoto D, Hirashima N et al. Biosurfactant MEL-A dramatically increases gene transfection via membrane fusion. J Control Release 2004; 94(2–3):423–431.
Ripp S, Nivens DE, Werner C et al. Controlled field release of a bioluminescent genetically engineered microorganism for bioremediation process monitoring and control. Environ Sci Technol 2000; 34:846–853.
Minast W, Gutnick DL. Isolation, characterization and sequence analysis of cryptic plasmids from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and their use in the construction of Escherichia coli shuttle plasmids. Appl Environ Microbiol 1993; 59(9):2807–2816.
Panilaitis B, Johri A, Blank W et al. Adjuvant activity of emulsan, a secreted lipopolysaccharide from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2002; 9:1240–1247.
Castro GR, Kamdar RR, Panilaitis B et al. Triggered release of proteins from emulsan-alginate beads. J Control Release 2005; 109:149–157.
Cha M, Lee N, Kim M et al. Heterologous production of Pseudomonas aeruginosa EMS1 biosurfactant in Pseudomonas putida. Bioresour Technol 2008; 99(7):2192–2199.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2010 Landes Bioscience and Springer Science+Business Media
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Satpute, S.K. et al. (2010). Molecular Genetics of Biosurfactant Synthesis in Microorganisms. In: Sen, R. (eds) Biosurfactants. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 672. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-5979-9_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-5979-9_2
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-5978-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-5979-9
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)