Summary
Floods are the most common natural disaster in Europe. The adverse human health consequences of flooding are complex and far-reaching: these include drowning, injuries, and an increased incidence of common mental disorders. Anxiety and depression may last for months and possibly even years after the flood event and so the true health burden is rarely appreciated. Effects of floods on communicable diseases appear relatively infrequent in Europe. The vulnerability of a person or group is defined in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard. Determining vulnerability is a major challenge. Vulnerable groups within communities to the health impacts of flooding are the elderly, disabled, children, women, ethnic minorities, and those on low incomes. There is a need for more good-quality epidemiological data before vulnerability indices can be developed. With better information, the emphasis in disaster management could shift from post-disaster improvisation to pre-disaster planning. A comprehensive, risk-based emergency management program of preparedness, response, and recovery has the potential to reduce the adverse health effects of floods, but there is currently inadequate evidence of the effectiveness of public health interventions
Access provided by Autonomous University of Puebla. Download to read the full chapter text
Chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aavitsland P, Iversen, BG, Krogh T, Fonahn W, Lystad A. [Infections during the 1995 flood in Ostlandet. Prevention and incidence]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 116:2038–2045
Abrahams MJ, Price J, Whitlock FA., Williams G (1974) The Brisbane floods, January 1974: their impact on health. Med J Aust 2:936–939
Albering HJ, van Leusen SM, Moonen EJC, Hoogewerff JA, Kleinjans JCS (1999) Human health risk assessment: A case study involving heavy metal soil contamination after the flooding of the river Meuse during the winter of 1993–1994. Environmental Health Perspectives 107:1:37–43
Baxter PJ, Moller I, Spencer T, Spence RJ, Tapsell S (2001) Flooding and climate change, in Health effects of climate change in the UK. Department of Health, London, pp 152–192
Bayrische Ruckversicherung (1996a) …13 months later. The January 1995 floodsBayrische Ruckversicherung. Special issue 17
Bayrische Ruckversicherung (1996b) The ‘Christmas floods’ in Germany 1993–94. Bayrische Ruckversicherung Special issue 16
Becht MC, van Tilburg M-A L, Vingerhoets A-JJM, Nyklicek I, de Vries J, Kirschbaum C, Antoni MH, van Heck GL (1998) Watersnood. Een verkennend onderzoek naar de gevolgen voor het welbevinden en de gezondheid van volwassenen en kinderen. [Flood: A pilot study on the consequences for well-being and health of adults and children]. Uitgeverij Boom, Netherlands
Bennet G (1970) Bristol floods 1968: controlled survey of effects on health of local community disaster. British Medical Journal 3:454–458
Binder S, Sanderson LM (1987) The role of the epidemiologist in natural disasters. Annals of Emergency Medicine 16:1081–1084
Blaikie P, Cannon T, Davis I, Wisner B (1994) At risk: natural hazards, people’s vulnerability and disasters. Routledge, London
Blake PA (1989) Communicable disease control. In: Gregg MB, French J, Binder S, Sanderson LM (eds) The Public Health Consequences of Disasters. US Dept of Human Health and Services, Atlanta
Bokszczanin A (2000) Psychologiczne konsekwencje powodzi u dzieci i mlodziezy. [Psychological consequences of floods in children and youth] Poland: Psychologia Wychowawcza.
CDC (1993) Morbidity surveillance following the midwest flood-Missouri, 1993. Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report 42(41):797–798
Cervenka J (1976) Health aspects of Danube river floods. AnnSoc Belg Med Trop 56:217–222
Curle CE, Wiliams C (1996) Post-traumatic stress reactions in children: gender differences in the incidence of trauma reactions at two years and examination of factors influencing adjustment. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 35:297–309
de Ville dG, Lechat MF, Boucquey C (1977) [Attitude toward the risk of epidemics during sudden disasters]. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 25:185–194
Duclos P, Vidonne O, Beuf P, Perray P, Stoebner A (1991) Flash flood disaster — Nimes, France, 1988. Eur J Epidemiol 7:365–371
Enarson E, Fordham M (2001) Lines that divide, ties that bind: race, class and gender in women’s flood recovery in the US and UK. Australian Journal of Emergency Management summer:43–52
Faulkner DS (1999) Flood estimation handbook. Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford
Flynn BW, Nelson ME (1998) Understanding the needs of children following large-scale disasters and the role of government. Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 7:211–227
Fordham M, Ketteridge AM (1995) Flood disasters — Dividing the community [presentation] International Emergency Planning Conference, 1995, Lancaster, UK.
Fordham MH (1998) Making women visible in disasters: problematising the private domain, Disasters 22:126–143
Fothergill A, Maestas EG, Darlington JD (1999) Race, ethnicity and disasters in the United States: a review of the literature. Disasters 23:156–173
French JG (1989) Floods. In: Public Health Consequences of Disasters. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, U.S.
French J, Ing R, von Allmen S, Wood R (1983) Mortality from flash floods: a review of national weather service reports, 1969–81. Public Health Rep 98;6:584–588
Fullilove MT (1996) Contributions from the psychology of place. Am J Psychiatry 153:1516–1523
Fulton J (1999) Using science to advocate action on climate change. Ecosystem Health 5:110–117
Greave H (1956) The Great Flood. Report to Essex County Council. Essex County Council
Green C (1988a) The Human Aspects of Flooding. Flood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University, Enfield
Green C (1988b) The Relationship between the Magnitude of Flooding, Stress and Health. Flood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University, Enfield
Green C, van der Veen A, Wierstra E, Penning-Rowsell E (1994) Vulnerability defined: analysing full flood impacts. In: Penning-Rowsell E, Fordham M (eds) Floods Across Europe:Hazard Assessment, Modelling and Management. Middlesex University Press, London, pp 32–68
Green CH, Emery PJ, Penning-Rowsell EC, Parker DJ (1985) The health effects of flooding: a case study of Uphill. Flood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex Polytechnic, Enfield
Huerta F, Horton R (1978) Coping behavior of elderly flood victims. Gerontologist 18;6:541–546
IFRC (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies) (1998) World disaster report 1997. Oxford University Press, New York
IPCC (2001) Climate Change 2001. Impacts, Adaptations and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Janerich DT, Stark AD, Greenwald P et al. (1981) Increased leukemia, lymphoma, and spontaneous abortion in Western New York following a flood disaster. Public Health Rep 96:350–356
Jarvis BB, Sorenson WG, Hintikka EL et al. (1998) Study of toxin production by isolates of Stachybotrys chartarum and Memnoniella echinata isolated during a study of pulmonary hemosiderosis in infants. Appl Environ Microbiol 64:3260–3265
Keene EP (1998) Phenomenological study of the North Dakota flood experience and its impact on survivors ‘health. Int J Trauma Nurs 4:79–84
Ketteridge AM, Fordham M (1995) Flood warning and the local community context. In: Handmer J (ed) Flood Warning: Issues and Practice in Total System Design. Flood Hazard Research Centre, Enfield, pp 189–199
Kirchsteiger C (1999) Trends in accidents, disasters and risk sources in Europe. Journal of loss prevention in the process industries 12:7–17
Kriz B, Benes C, Castkova J, Helcl J (1998) Monitorování Epidemiologické Situace V Zaplavených Oblastech V Èeské Republice V Roce 1997. [Monitoring the Epidemiological situation in flooded areas of the Czech Republic in 1997.] In: Konference DDD,98; Kongresové Centrum Lázeòská Kolonáda Podìbrady, 11.–13. Kvìtna 1998 [Proceedings of the Conference DDD’98, 11–12th May, 1998, Prodebrady, Czech Republic.] Prodebrady, Czech Republic
Kucerova H (1999) [Reaction of patients in the psychiatric outpatient department to floods in 1997]. Ceska a Slovenska Psychiatrie 95:478–482
Lechat MF (1990a) The epidemiology of health effects of disasters. Epidemiologic Reviews 12:192–198
Lechat MF (1990b) The public health dimensions of disasters, International Journal of Mental Health 19:70–79
Logue JN, Melick ME, Hansen H (1981) Research issues and directions in the epidemiology of health effects of disasters. Epidemiologic Reviews 3:140–162
Lorraine NSR (1954) Canvey Island flood disaster, February, 1953. Medical Officer 91:59–62
Malilay J (1997) Floods. In: Noji E (ed) Public Health Consequences of Disasters. OUP, New York, pp 287–301
Marcuello C, Estrela T. Floods in Spain: Main features and their effects. In: River Flood Disasters, ICSU, SC/IDNDR Workshop. Koblenz, Germany, BFG IHP/ODP-Secretariat, pp 135–144
McCluskey J (2001) Water supply, health and vulnerability in floods. Waterlines 19:14–17
McMichael AJ, Campbell-Lendrum D, Kovats RS et al. (2004) Climate change. In: Ezzati M et al. (eds) Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease due to Selected Major Risk Factors. World Health Organization, Geneva
Miettinen IT, Zacheus O, von Bonsdorff CH, Vartiainen T (2001) Waterborne epidemics in Finland in 1998–1999. Water Sci Technol 43:67–71
Milly PC, Wetherald RT, Dunne KA., Delworth TL (2002) Increasing risk of great floods in a changing climate. Nature 415;6871:514–517
Morrow BH (1999) Identifying and mapping community vulnerability. Disasters 23;1:1–18
Munckhof WJ, Mayo MJ, Scott I, Currie BJ (2001) Fatal human melioidosis acquired in a subtropical Australian city. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65:325–328
Noji EK (1992) Disaster epidemiology: Challenges for public health action. Journal of Public Health Policy 13:332–340
Noji EK (1995), Disaster epidemiology and disease monitoring. Journal of Medical Systems 19;2:171–174
Noji EK (1996) Disaster epidemiology. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America 14;2:289–300
Noji EK (2000) The public health consequences of disasters. Prehospital Disaster Med 15;4:147–157
Ohl CA, Tapsell S (2000) Flooding and Human Health. British Medical Journal 321:1167–1168
Parry M, Hulme M, Nicholls R, Livermore M (1998) Adapting to the inevitable. Nature 395:741
Penning-Rowsell EC, Fordham M (1994) Floods across Europe: Hazard assessment, modelling and management. Middlesex University Press, London
Penning-Rowsell E, Handmer J, Tapsell S (1996) Extreme events and climate change; floods. In: Downing TE, Olsthroon AA, Tol RSJ (eds) Climate Change and Extreme Events: Altered Risk, Socio-Economic Impacts and Policy Responses, pp 97–127
Phifer JF (1990) Psychological distress and somatic symptoms after natural disaster: differential vulnerability among older adults. Psychol Ageing 5:412–420
Phifer JF, Kaniasty KZ, Norris FH (1988) The impact of natural disaster on the health of older adults: A multiwave prospective study. Journal of Health & Social Behavior 29:65–78
Reacher M, McKenzie K, Lane C et al. (2004) Health impacts of flooding in Lewes: a comparison of reported gastro-intestinal and other illnesses in flooded and nonflooded households. Communicable Disease and Public Health 7:1–8
Rosenzweig C, Iglesias A, Yang XB et al. (2001) Climate change and extreme weather events: implications for food production, plant diseases, and pests. Global Change & Human Health 2:90–104
Sartorius N (1990) Coping with disasters: The mental health component. Preface. International Journal of Mental Health 19:3–4
Saunders MA (1998) Central and Eastern European Floods of July 1997. Benfield Greig Hazard Research Centre, London
Smoyer KE (1998) Putting risk in its place: methodological considerations for investigating extreme event health risks. Soc Sci Med 47:1809–1824
Summers D (1978) The East Coast floods. David & Charles, London
Tapsell S (2001) The health effects from fluvial flooding. Report to the Environment Agency. Flood Hazard Research Centre, Enfield
Tapsell SM, Tunstall SM (2001) The health and social effects of the June 2000 flooding in the North East region. Flood Hazard Research Centre, Enfield
Tapsell SM (2000) Follow-up study of the health effects of the Easter 1998 flooding in Banbury and Kadlington. Report to the Environment Agency. Flood Hazard Research Centre, Enfield
Thompson N (1995) The ontology of disaster. Death studies 19;5:501–510
Thonissen C (1998) Water management and flood prevention in the framework of land-use management.[presentation] Workshop held by DGXVI of the European Commission. 1998, July 2–3, Thessaloniki, Greece
Ticehurst S, Webster RA, Carr VJ, Lewin TJ (1996) The psychosocial impact of an earthquake on the elderly. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 11:943–951
Verger P, Rotily M, Baruffol E et al. (1999) Evaluation of the psychological consequences of environmental catastrophes: A feasibility study based on the 1992 floods in the Vaucluse (France). Cahiers Sante 9:313–318
WHO (2002) Floods: Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies for Human Health. Report of meeting, London, 30 June–2 July 2002. http://www.who.dk/document/E77096.pdf
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2005 World Health Organization
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hajat, S., Ebi, K.L., Kovats, R.S., Menne, B., Edwards, S., Haines, A. (2005). The Human Health Consequences of Flooding in Europe: a Review. In: Kirch, W., Bertollini, R., Menne, B. (eds) Extreme Weather Events and Public Health Responses. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-28862-7_18
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-28862-7_18
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-24417-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-28862-6
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)