Keywords

1 Introduction

In the current circumstance, due to the increase in population, usage of assets like petrol, coal and diesel are continuously increasing. The availability of these non-environmentally friendly power source will decrease accordingly, and it will be exhausted in sometime leading to a future with fuel and mineral deficit. In this way, present patterns in energy utilization, particularly oil, cannot be supported any longer [1,2,3]. Additionally, the use of conventional energy sources is the major cause behind environmental imbalance, ozone layer consumption and global warming which thus is a major danger to the future human race. Once more, considering the chance of a worldwide temperature alteration, these assets are assuming a negative part. Along these lines, under the present situation, it is very important to make another investigation of the common asset of energy. It is viable, more affordable or more all, it is an unending wellspring of energy. With well-enhanced energy productivity, a shift to an energy-based wealth capable of supporting predicted global economic growth is possible [4, 5].

Power can be produced utilizing environmentally friendly power sources, for example, solar, wind and biomass. Sun-based energy is the cleanest and most abundant ecologically friendly power source available. Sunlight-based solar panels convert the sunlight rays into usable solar energy. The process of turning light (photons) into electricity (voltage) is defined as the photovoltaic effect. Solar panels convert the majority of visible light and a small amount of brilliant infrared light into electricity. Solar charging innovations can harness this energy for a variety of purposes, including generating electricity, providing light or a pleasant indoor atmosphere, and warming water for domestic, commercial or industrial usage [6,7,8].

The authors propose to decrease the utilization of natural fuel-controlled vehicle and plan climate-amicable electric vehicle. Sunlight-oriented vehicle is principally controlled by direct sun rays. On the solar vehicle, photovoltaic (PV) cells are utilized to capture the PV rays and convert the solar-oriented energy form into electric energy form. Silicon and mixtures of indium, gallium and nitrogen are used to create this product. The semiconductors assimilate light and afterwards discharge it, creating a progression of electrons that produce power which charges 24 V battery associated with it, which runs the 375 W Brushless DC (BLDC) motor to send the ability to drive the vehicle. We are using high-strength iron square pipes for good mechanical strength. The configuration is made with the end goal that vehicle has appropriate weight to power proportion and is light in weight and strong, which is a must for any solar charging vehicle.

Habib et al. [9] have discussed the present and future status of electric vehicle (EV) and charging system implementation. The EV batteries are charged during the day by PV charging stations in parking area. Khalid et al. [10] have reviewed EV charging infrastructures and the impact it has on power quality of grid. Savio et al. [11] have analysed the energy management strategy of hybrid microgrid structured EV charging station. Tazay and Miao [12] have proposed a hybrid converter for PV charging station. Ramadhani et al. [13] have reviewed the different PV-based charging techniques for EV. Abdelsalam et al. [14] have presented the modelling and simulation of PV-powered EV charging station. Tiano et al. [15] have evaluated the potential of PV panel installation on EV body.

Most of the work proposes EV with PV charging stations. Our study designs and implements PV integrated EV system so as to improve the driving range and reduce battery storage size. The authors have designed and implemented PV-based EV system instead of conventional EV with PV charging stations. The advantages offered by the proposed solar charging EV system are reduced grid energy demand, increased EV driving range and reduced carbon emissions.

The paper is organized as given. Section 2 discusses the modelling of solar charging electric vehicle. Section 3 focuses on the design calculation of the EV. Section 4 discusses the design vehicle specifications and a comparison with the conventional vehicles. Section 5 gives the conclusion along with future scope of work.

2 Proposed Work

The block diagram of solar charging electric vehicle with a battery charge/discharge controller is shown in Fig. 1. The SCEV project was at first begun in the fall of 2021. The required number of parts were bought, and associations were done with the creation shop close by for joint welding to the edges of the vehicle: 3 × 6 ft length 1.5″ square iron pipe body, 2-rods at the end, 1-steering for 2 front wheel, 1-solar plate, 1 steering set, 1-brake build near to handle, 4 small wheels, 2 battery, 1 reverse switch, 1 chain set, 375 W BLDC motor, controller, 7 × bearings and 1 brake cable [16,17,18].

Fig. 1
A block diagram has the following components. Sun, solar panel, charge control, motor controller, motor switch, plug-in charging, battery, motor, brake suspension, steering, battery indicator, and wheels.

Block diagram of solar charging electric vehicle

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2.1 Solar Panel

Solar cells are generally constructed of silicon that has been specially processed to shape an electric field. The back is heavily doped with boron, while the phosphorus-doped negative side is exposed to the sun. At the point when photons from sun rays hit the solar cells, making electron-opening sets, electrons are extracted from the particles in the semiconductor material. Figure 2 shows the block diagram of a single PV cell. Assuming electrical conduits are connected to the +ve and −ve sides, an electrical circuit is shaped and the moving electrons make electric flow \(I_{\text{g}}\) (photocurrent). The more noteworthy the power of daylight, the more prominent is the progression of power [19,20,21,22,23,24].

Fig. 2
A circuit diagram labels I g on the left, I d and R p in the center, I i, R s, and I on the top, and V on the right.

Equivalent circuit of a single PV cell

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When there is no daylight, the sunlight-based cell is certainly not a functioning gadget, and it fills in as a diode. In the event that it is associated with an outer stockpile, it creates a current, \(I_{\text{d}}\), called diode current. Figure contains a flow source, \(I_{\text{g}}\), the diode and an arrangement opposition addressing the inner obstruction of a cell \(R_{\text{s}}\). As a result, the difference between \(I_{\text{g}}\) and \(I_{\text{d}}\) is the net current \(I\) expressed as:

$$I = I_{\text{g}} - I_{\text{d}} = I_{\text{g}} - I_{0} \left( {{\text{e}}^{{\frac{{\beta \left( {V + R_{\text{s}} I} \right)}}{\alpha }}} - 1} \right),$$
(1)

where α is the diode ideality factor, β is the inverse thermal voltage, k is Boltzmann’s gas constant, V is cell voltage and \(I_{0}\) is the diode reverse saturation current.

2.2 Battery

A battery is an electrical component that changes chemical energy into electrical energy and the other way around. Positive cathode and negative anode are the two terminals that it usually possesses. During a prospective shift (charging or releasing) the framework relies on the synthetic response of electrolyte (fluid or glue arrangement). Particles will pass between the two terminals because of the electrolyte (cathode and anode) or the dynamic materials of the battery, enabling electricity to flow from the battery in order to complete necessary tasks.

The battery's applications are limitless. For all electrical devices that necessities high energy stockpiling limit or for any gadget that requirements low energy yield (versatile gadgets like cell, PC and so forth), battery is utilized for either to capacity energy or to go about as a force supply. Along with technological advancements that increase the capacity limit, size and lifetime of batteries, new battery applications are gradually emerging [17,18,19,20].

For the solar-based vehicle, we were utilizing battery for a backup to store energy which has ceaseless yield. To do that we need explicit determination of battery to play out our undertaking effectively which require clear comprehension of its boundaries just as its inclination of conduct.

State of charge (SOC) is a statement of the current battery limit as a level of greatest limit. SOC is for the most part determined utilizing current incorporation to decide the adjustment of battery limit over the long run. It can likewise be clarified as:

$${\text{SOC}} = \frac{{\text{Available Capacity}}}{{\text{Nominal Capacity}}}$$
(2)

Depth of discharge (DOD) defines the level of battery capacity that has been discharged with respect to the most extreme limit. Figure 3 shows the charging and discharging of the battery. The SOC represents an alternative form of DOD measurement, and hence, DOD is expressed as:

$${\text{DOD}} = {1}-{\text{SOC}}$$
(3)
Fig. 3
A schematic has the following parts. S O C 100% & D O D 0% fully charged, 0 % is less than S O C is less than 100% D O D = 1 minus S O C being discharged, and S O C 0% & D O D 100% fully discharged.

Battery charging and discharging (SOC vs. DOD)

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3 Design Calculation for Solar Charging Electric Vehicle

The solar vehicle is manufactured at the cost of INR 30,000. The vehicle has a wheelbase of 1066 mm (42 in.). The vehicle uses four wheels, two wheels in front and two in rear. The body material uses seamless square iron pipe for better mechanical strength. The ground clearance from the driver seat is 101.4 mm (4 in.). The ground clearance is decided as per the vehicle structure. There is square iron pipe bumper in the front and the rear of the vehicle. Two jack point is provided near the rear wheel. The driver’s exit is so easy that he/she can exit from the vehicle within 5 s. Driver visibility is two hundred degrees (200°) field of vision and one hundred degrees (100°) to both sides of the driver. Steering system is well connected with the front two wheels. Proper braking system is attached with the rear wheels supporting by the disc. The BLDC motor is used with the power 375 W, and running voltage is limited to 24 V. Battery capacity is 24 V and 30 Ah all the time. Figure 4 shows the overview of the developed solar charging electric vehicle. Figure 5 displays the different parts of the SCEV. Figure 5a shows the braking system with the rear wheel, and Fig. 5b shows the wheel side view. Figure 5c shows the battery charge/discharge controller, and Fig. 5d shows the solar panel. Figure 5e shows the battery pack and Fig. 5f the chain set. Table 1 shows the dimensions of the designed solar charging electric vehicle. Table 2 gives the solar charging electric vehicle specifications. Table 3 shows the calculated values for angular velocity, frequency, peak torque, peak power, continuous torque, continuous power, continuous speed, air resistance and rolling resistance derived from Eqs. (4) to (12).

Fig. 4
A setup of the charging of solar electric vehicle.

Overall view of solar charging electric vehicle

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Fig. 5
Six sets of close-ups. A depicts braking system with the rear wheel. B depicts the wheel side view. C depicts the battery charge or discharge controller. D depicts solar panels. E depicts the battery pack. F depicts a chain set.

View of different parts of solar charging electric vehicle

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Table 1 Dimensions of the designed solar charging electric vehicle
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Table 2 Solar charging electric vehicle specifications
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Table 3 Calculation results
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  • Wheel angular velocity calculation

Considering Linear Velocity = 20 km/h

Speed = 20 × (5/18) m/s = 5.55 m/s

Wheel Diameter = 0.4 m

$$\begin{aligned} {\text{Angular Velocity}} & = {\text{Linear Velocity}} \div {\text{Radius}} \\ & = {5}.{55}/0.{2} = {27}.{75}\,{\text{rad}}/{\text{s}} \\ \end{aligned}$$
(4)
$$\begin{aligned}{\text{Angular Speed}}& = {2} \times {\text{frequency}} \times \pi\\ {\text{Frequency}} & = {\text{Angular Speed}}/{2}\pi {\text{RPS}} = {\text{Angular Speed}} \times {6}0/\left( {\pi \times {2}} \right){\text{RPM}} \\ & = {27}.{75} \times {6}0/\left( {{3}.{14} \times {2}} \right){\text{RPM}} = {265}.{12}\,{\text{RPM}} \\ \end{aligned}$$
(5)

  • Peak torque calculation

$$\begin{aligned} {\text{Peak Torque Wheel}} & = \left( {{\text{Wt}}.{\text{ of Vehicle}} + {\text{Wt}}.{\text{ of Battery}}} \right)\\&\quad \times {\text{Acceleration due to gravity}} \\ & \quad \times {\text{Slope}}\% \times {\text{Radius of wheel}} \\ & = \left( {{8}0 + {2}0} \right) \times {9}.{8} \times 0.{2} \times 0.{1}\,{\text{N-m}} = {19}.{6}\,{\text{N-m}} \\ \end{aligned}$$
(6)
$$\begin{aligned} {\text{Power Required}} & = {\text{Angular Velocity}} \times {\text{Torque}} \\ & = {27}.{75} \times {19}.{6}\,{\text{W}} = {543}.{9}\,{\text{W}} \\ \end{aligned}$$
(7)

  • Air resistance calculation

$$\begin{aligned} {\text{Air Resistance}} & = \left( {{5}/{1}00{,}000} \right) \times {\text{Wt}}.{\text{ of vehicle}} \times \left( {\text{Average Speed}} \right)^{{3}} \\ & = \left( {{5}/{1}00{,}000} \right) \times {8}0 \times {2}0{3} = {32}\,{\text{W}} \\ \end{aligned}$$
(8)

  • Rolling resistance calculation

$$\begin{aligned} {\text{Rolling Resistance}} & = 0.0{92} \times {\text{average speed}} \times {\text{Wt}}.{\text{ of the vehicle}} \\ & = 0.0{92} \times {2}0 \times {8}0 = {147}.{2}\,{\text{W}} \\ \end{aligned}$$
(9)

  • Continuous power calculation

$$\begin{aligned} {\text{Power Required }}\left( {{\text{Continuous}}} \right) & = {\text{Rolling Resistance}} + {\text{Air Resistance}} \\ & = {147}.{2} + {32} = {179}.{2}\,{\text{W}} \\ \end{aligned}$$
(10)

  • Continuous speed calculation

$$\begin{aligned} {\text{Continuous Speed}} & = {\text{Average Speed}} \times 60/\left( {2 \times {\text{Wheel Radius}} \times \pi } \right) \\ & = 20 \times \left( {5/18} \right) \times 60/\left( {2 \times 0.2 \times \pi } \right) = 104.66\,{\text{RPM}} \\ \end{aligned}$$
(11)

  • Continuous torque calculation

$$\begin{aligned} {\text{Torque Required}} & = \left( {{\text{Air Resistance}} + {\text{Rolling Resistance}}} \right)\\&\quad \times 60/\left( {2 \times {\text{Continuous Speed}} \times \pi } \right) \\ & = \left( {32 + 147.2} \right) \times 60/\left( {2 \times 104.66 \times \pi } \right) = 16.34\,{\text{N-m}} \\ \end{aligned}$$
(12)

4 Solar Charging Electric Vehicle Specifications

It's just a DC transformer with a chopper circuit that allows it to go up or down in voltage. We can increase the yield voltage by changing the semiconductor switch's obligation pattern. To avoid a sudden shift in current, we may simply charge the battery through an inductor. We may connect the DC motor to the circuit in a similar manner. Table 4 presents the SWAT analysis for SCEV. Table 5 gives a comparison of solar charging electric vehicle with petrol vehicle and electric vehicle. Table 6 provides a comparison of running cost for petrol vehicle, electric vehicle and solar electric vehicle.

Table 4 SWOT analysis
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Table 5 Comparison of solar charging electric vehicle with petrol vehicle and electric vehicle
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Table 6 Comparison of running cost
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5 Conclusions

A four-wheeled minimal expense photovoltaic integrated electric vehicle is achievable and practicable. Our SCEV, a solitary situated vehicle controlled by 375 W BLDC-centred motor can be a decent decision for the Asian market. A multivariate specialized gathering has improved the design and manufacturing of our SCEV, ensuring that it stays a safe, elite and cost-effective electric sun-based vehicle. Utilization of square iron pipes for strong mechanical strength, utilization of ergonomically planned solar vehicle inside, moving on direct sunlight-based energy without external source, utilization of a few electronic gadgets like solar board heat sensors, advanced cooling framework and so forth have reinforced the vehicle as a high-level SCEV ready for worldwide market. Thus, the authors have designed a photovoltaic integrated electric vehicle which has numerous advantages when compared with conventional EV with the requirement of separate charging station.