Keywords

16.1 Introduction

The genus Verbascum L. is usually known as mullein, is a member of family Scrophulariaceae, which includes more than 400 wide-reaching species. Forty-five species (Rami-Porta et al. 2007) and a few fusions of Verbascum exist in the plants of Iran, 20 of which are widespread (Rechinger 1981; Sotoodeh et al. 2017). This class includes Verbascum thapsus L., which grows wild on flinty ground, in woodland, wasteland, clearings, and along the side of roads (Speranza et al. 2010). Plants of this type are generally utilized in tradition medicine (Gvazava and Kikoladze 2007). Its small yellow flowers are grouped solidly on a tall stem, which rolls from a large rosette of leaves. It flourishes in a wide diversity of habitats, but opt for ablaze anxious soils, where it can emerge promptly after the ground experiences light, from long-standing seeds that continue in the soil seed bank. It is a usual weedy from its large rosette of leaves. It flourishes as a wide diversity plant that proliferates by industriously producing seeds, but hardly becomes assertively insidious, because its seeds need open ground to sprout. It is a very insignificant obstacle for most agricultural crops, cause it is not a very aggressive species, being fanatical of shade from other plants and impotent to endure tilling. It also acts as a host for many insects, many of these can be dangerous to various plants. Even though those are effortless to detach by hand, populations are burdensome to abolish permanently (Watts 2000). Verbascum is thought to be a derivative of “barbascum,” from the Latin barba, meaning moustache, referring to the genus’ disheveled occurrence, while Thapsus, its particular name, may refer to the Greek island of the same name, where the species once flourished. The word “mullein” is derived from Middle English moleyne and Old French moleine, as well as the Latin mollis, which means “soft” and refers to the leaves (Le Strange 1977). There are 360 species of common mullein, also recognized as Wooly Mullein (V. thapsus L.) (Faik and Zeki 2008). V. thapsus L. also called as Kharghwug (Murad et al. 2011), Ghordoughkaro (Hussain et al. 2007), Gidder Tambakoo (Qureshi et al. 2007), Tamakusak (Shinwari and Gilani 2003), Khardhag (Sher et al. 2011), Jungle Tambako and Barbasco (Sher et al. 2011). Different chemical constituents have been isolated like saponins—triterpene B, triterpene A, saikogenin A (De and De Pascual 1978), thapsuine B, hydroxythapsuine, thapsuine A, hydroxythapsuine A iridoid glycosides—harpagide, verbascoside A, aucubin and isocatalpol, and their various derivatives (Bianco et al. 1984; Seifert et al. 1985b) and phenylethanoid glycosides (Warashina et al. 1991, 1992). Flavonoids have also been isolated from the plant (Souleles and Geronikaki 1989). The Verbascum types enclose photochemical including iridous (Arrif et al. 2008) phenylethanoids (Brownstein et al. 2017), flavonoids (Nykmukanova et al. 2019), neolignan glycosides (Akdemir et al. 2004), saponins spermine alkaloids (Halimi and Nasrabadi 2018) mucilage (Saeidi and Lorigooini 2017), vital oils, and fatty acids (Alipieva et al. 2014; Riaz et al. 2013; Boğa et al. 2016). Phenolics are another foremost group of the plants compounds that have revealed several biological results, including antibacterial and antioxidant actions against reactive oxygen species (ROS), particularly superox (Nègre-Salvayre and Salvayre 1992; Tauchen et al. 2015; Arsene et al. 2015; Carvalho et al. 2018; Rasera et al. 2019).

16.2 Historical Background of V. thapsus

The Verbascum gets its name from the Latin word “barbascum barba” (Jankowiak 1976), which refers to the plant’s beard-like filaments (Wilhelm Jr 1974). The word Thapsus may have been extracted from the Isle of Siclian Thapsos, where mullein was collected in ancient times (Mitich 1992), or from the Tunisian island “Thapsus,” according to legend (Jankowiak 1976). Instead of the yellow flower of the plant, Thapsos is a Greek term (Wilhelm Jr 1974). The plant has yellow flowers, and the Roman ladies have yellow hair. Mullein is derived from the Latin word mollis, which means soft (Durant 1976), and is synonymous with the modern term woolen (Mitich 1992; Notch 1989). Although the exact history of its introduction into North America is unclear, V. thapsus (common mullein, Scrophulariaceae) was most likely presented into North America multiple times, both inadvertently and deliberately as a remedial herb in California (Gross and Werner 1978).

By 1880, V. thapsus had arrived in Siskiyou county (Watson 1880), and herbarium assemblage began in the early 1900s. Not a thing is noted about the timing and specimens of its proliferation throughout the area, but it was discovered in 1934 at 1615 m in the Tahoe National Forest and has likely occupied some high-elevation locations for not less than seven decades (CalFlora Database, http://www.calflora.org). The wildflower V. thapsus is an alarming roadside and industrial pest (Semenza et al. 1978). However, since it is mostly found only in disturbed areas, it has not been identified as a significant toxic intruder in most parts of California (Hoshovsky 1986). V. thapsus, on the other hand, may form dense stands in areas with thin soils and open undergrowth, or in wooded areas after a fire. In the Owens Valley, it is said to have displaced native herbs and grasses in whole meadows.

16.3 Botany

V. thapsus is a stiff and stout herbaceous annual or biennial wild blossom. It produces a low rosette with a height of up to 61 cm. Flowers are closely packed and appear one per axil, in both male and female reproductive organs. Flowers have five sepals, five petals, a two-celled ovary, and five stamens and are yellow in color. Fruit is a capsule that splits into two halves as it reaches adulthood. The capsule has a star-shaped facade and is ovoid in shape, measuring 3–6 mm in length. The pits are brown in color and range in length from 0.5 to 1.0 mm. In general, the basal leaves are oblong-obviate to oblanceolate entire, with small and extended petioles (10–40 cm). The leaf borders are alternately arranged and are either whole or unclearly crenate. Cauline leaves are 5–30 cm long with pinnate venation and are arranged along the stem. Mullein has an extensive taproot and a fibrous, thin secondary root system. The stem is upright and robust, with a size range of 50–180 cm. The stalk is usually plain, with leaves arranged in a row (Halvorson and Guertin 2003; Wagner et al. 1999).

16.4 Medicinal Importance of V. thapsus

Historically, mullein has been employed as an antidote for the respirational tract, mostly in cases of annoying coughs with bronchial blocking (Hoffmann and Manning 2002). Mullein leaves and flowers have expectorant and demulcent effects, which are employed by herbalists to cure respiratory complications for example bronchitis, dry coughs, whooping cough, tuberculosis, asthma, and harshness (Turker and Gurel 2005; Berk 1996). The flowers are gently diuretic and have a gentle and anti-inflammatory properties on the urinary area. The leaves are also diuretic, potion to reduce inflammation of the urinary system, and oppose the irritating effect of acid urine (Ambasta 1986; Turker and Camper 2002). Some herbal texts extend the remedial use to pneumonia and asthma (Turker and Gurel 2005). The leaves, roots, and the flowers are also anodyne, antibacterial, antispasmodic, astringent, emollient, nerving, vulnerary, analgesic, antihistaminic, anticancer, antioxidant, antiviral, bacteriostat, cardiodepressant, estrogenic fungicide, hypnotic, and calming (Harris 1972; Lucas 1969; Turker and Gurel 2005). The demulcent and emollient properties originate from the polysaccharide adhesive and gums that mitigate the bothered tissue. The expectorant property is the result of aspirins that stimulate fluid production. The anti-inflammatory property is due to ericoid glycosides and flavonoids that decrease tenderness (Turker and Gurel 2005). The mullein combines the expectorant exploit of its saponins with the gentle effect of its mucilage, making this a most valuable herb for the behavior of huskiness, tight coughs, bronchitis, asthma, and whooping cough (Turker and Gurel 2005). The dehydrated leaves are occasionally smoked in a common tobacco pipe to reduce the annoyance of the respiratory mucus membrane, and will totally restraint the hacking cough of utilization. The leaves are engaged with similar advantages when made into cigarettes, for asthma and irregular coughs. The flowers placed in a bottle and set in the sunshine are said to defer a fatty matter valuable as a cure for hemorrhoids. Fomentations and poultices of the leaves have been noticed helpful in hemorrhoidal complications. Mullein is said to be of much worth in diarrhea, from its amalgamation of demulcent with a strict effects and this amalgamation reinforcement of the entrails at the same time (Turker and Gurel 2005). In Europe, a sweetened infusion of flowers strained in order to separate the rough hairs is used as a domestic remedy for mild catarrhs and colic. A preserve of the flowers has also been working antagonistic to ringworm, and a purified water of the flowers was long alleged to be a treatment for erysipelas and burns (Prakash et al. 2016; Turker and Gurel 2005). A decoction of leaves was employed as a health stimulant. A decoction of roots febrifuge is used to improve toothache and also to alleviate cramps, convulsions, and migraines. The cordial of the plant and powder made from the dehydrated roots is said to rapidly separate irregular warts while massaged on them (Tyler 1994). An oil formed by macerating mullein flowers in olive oil, stored in a corked bottle during extended subjection to the sun, or by placing it near the fire for some days, is employed as a local preparation in country districts in Germany for piles and other mucus membrane inflammation, and also for frostbite and bruises. Mullein oil is prescribed for earache and discharge from the ear, and for any eczema of the external ear and its duct (Turker and Gurel 2005). Mullein oil is a beneficial demolisher of disease germs (Chopra et al. 1956; Prakash et al. 2016). The additional plants, marinated for 21 days in olive oil, are reported to make an commendable bactericide. An alcohol color is formulated by homoeopathic chemists, from the new herb with spirits of wine, which has demonstrated advantageous for migraines or sick annoyances of long status, with authority of the ear (Bianchini and Corbetta 1977; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The seeds of mullein are reported to be toxic and should not be employed in any of these researches (Berk 1996). The seeds when thrown into the water are said to intoxicate fish, and are employed by pillagers for that motive, being a little narcotic. Major toxic rudiments disturbing the circulatory, respiratory, and central nervous systems of the fish comprise spooning, rotenone, and glycoside. The common mullein causes fish to have complexity in breathing (Wilhelm Jr 1974). The flowering stem was employed, dehydrated out by Greeks and Romans as a candle immersed in tallow for light. Mullein torches were reported to repel witches. There is authentication that at one time, it was a “magical plant” of the ancients. Agrippa, a general and priest under Caesar Augustus, reported that the aroma from the leaves had an ungovernable effect on demons. Mullein was believed to be an element in drinks and love potions, and introduced in magic spells used by witches during the Middle Ages. The women of Rome also infused the flowers and mixed the ensuing liquid with lye, using it as a clean to turn their hair golden yellow (Le Strange 1977).

16.4.1 Antitumor Activity

FO-Com (plants extracted from V. thapsus in pure olive oil) revealed antitumor activity. Aqueous extricate from Densiflorum blossom had a significant restraint result on the expansion stage of protein biosynthesis in isolated rat liver microsomes when tested for antitumor property. The saponin fraction was found to be the key culprit (Turker and Camper 2002).

16.4.2 Cardiovascular Activity

Verbacoside (1 mm) enhanced heart rate by 37%, contraction force by 9%, and coronary perfusion rate by 68% in isolated, perfuse rodent hearts (Langendorff model). As compared to the spirited α-adrenergic blocker phentolamine (1 μM), verbascoside remarkably enhanced chronotropism (p = 0.010), tropism (p = 0.016), and CPR (p = 0.016) (Mehrotra et al. 1989).

16.4.3 Anti-inflammatory Activity

The anti-inflammatory activity of verbascoside is possibly due to its capability to scavenge nitric oxide radicals. J774.1 cells were stimulated by seven phenylethanoids, involving acteoside (verbascoside), at concentrations of 100–200 mm compact (6.3–62.3%) nitrite assemblage in lipopolysaccharide (0.1 μg/mL). They decreased nitrite assemblage caused by lipopolysaccharide (0.1 mg/mL), interferon (100 U/mL) in mouse peritoneal evacuate macrophages by 32.2–72.4% at 200 mm. In human polymorphonuclear leukocytes, verbascoside inhibited the development of the 5-lipoxygenase product 5-HETE and leukotriene B. The critical scavenging properties of verbascoside (acteoside) were very high (Kimura et al. 1987).

16.4.4 Hepatoprotective Activity

Aucubin managed intravenously at 100 mg/kg substantially confined beagle dogs from mortal poisoning generated by digestion of Amanita virosa mushrooms. The action of aucubin was partially because of a defensive conclusion on the despair of m-RNA biosynthesis in the liver due to α-amanitin intoxication. It has also been revealed that aucubin confined mice from hepatic impairment produced by carbon tetrachloride intoxication (Pandey et al. 1982).

16.4.5 Antibacterial Activity

In the current study, typical plant namely V. thapsus has been evaluated against selected human pathogens for its antimicrobial properties. The reports showed that the plant extracts tested have important antibacterial potential in opposition to Escherichia coli, Yersinia pestis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, B. cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus (Table 16.1) (Kannan et al. 2009; Prakash et al. 2016).

Table 16.1 Taxonomic hierarchy of Verbascum thapsus
Full size table

16.4.6 Treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis

Acceptance of apoptosis in Trichomonas vaginalis due to the remove of this plant have been reported by Kashan et al. Inhibitory concentration 50% (IC50) of ethanolic abstract of V. thapsus and metronidazole later 24 h were 39.17 and 0.0326 μg/mL, respectively. Outcomes of this study specify that the percentage of apoptosis after behavior of parasites with various concentrations of V. thapsus extricate (25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 μg/mL) were 20.7, 37.04, 47.5, 62.72, and 86.35 respectively (Kashan et al. 2015).

16.4.7 Antiviral Activity

When tested for antiviral property antagonistic to Herpes simplex Virus Type-1 (HSV-1) and influenza virus A (using dye-uptake assay systems), V. thapsus lyophilized flower infusion showed potent anti-influenza property with IC50 < 6.25 mg/mL (Rajbhandari et al. 2009). In vitro cells, Zanon et al. discovered that an ethanolic extricate of V. thapsus had the greatest restraint effect antagonistic to pseudorabies virus strain RC/79 (Herpes suis) (2 log). The same types were reported to prevent plaque genesis induced by pseudorabies by 50% at a concentration of 35 μg/mL, 59 and 99% inhibition during the adsorption process, and virus development with the plant extract in a follow-up study (Escobar et al. 2012). Antiviral activity of V. thapsus against influenza virus (IC50 < 6.25 mg/mL) is also encouraging (Rajbhandari et al. 2009). Another antiviral study using methanol extracts of 100 plants in opposition to 7 viruses found 12 extricates to be effective antiviral agents at concentrating that were also noncytotoxic. In this analysis, extracts from V. thapsus were found to inhibit the herpes virus type-1 (Mccutcheon et al. 1995), particularly decoctions from the flowers of V. thapsus, which revealed very powerful effect in opposition to viruses (Mehrotra et al. 1989; Zanon et al. 1999). Although there have been no attempts to separate and estimate antiviral property of active metabolites from the ethanolic/methanolic decoctions of V. thapsus, a few studies on main metabolites from other plants with a high tendency to be avoided in the previous solvent decoctions have been allowed. In one study, verbascoside was observed to be most potent in opposition to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV-A2), with an EC50 of 0.80 μg/mL, an IC50 of 76.9 μg/mL, and a variability index (SI) of 85.4 (Chen et al. 1998). Aucubin, an iridoid glycoside, isolated from Plantago asiatica plants, was tested for antiviral property in opposition to a hepatitis B viral culture system (Hep G2 cells). While aucubin had no antiviral activity on its own, when it was preincubated with glucosidase, it showed promising results (Chang 1997).

16.4.8 Nephroprotective Activity

As compared to normal silymarin (50 mg/kg), the methanolic extract of V. thapsus leaves showed a nephroprotective protective effect in rats against gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg. A drop in creatinine, urea, and urea nitrogen in the blood levels indicated a substantial reduction in nephrotoxicity. These qualities can also contribute to its ethnomedicinal status as a diuretic (Kahraman et al. 2011), so more experimental verification of active ideologies of V. thapsus methanolic solvent fraction is crucial.

16.4.9 Anthelmintic Activity

When concentrated in methanol, several extricate from V. thapsus had anthelmintic and insecticidal effects in vitro. The earthworm (Pheretima posthuma) was employed to measure anthelmintic behavior, with the time of paralysis and death compared to the orientation medication albendazole. V. thapsus extract was used at various concentrations of 5, 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg, and it was found to have a significant anthelmintic effect. Leaf and fruit concentrates killed the worms in 35 and 40 min, correspondingly Leaf extricate had substantial anthelmintic property than stem extract, and root extract had the least anthelmintic commotion, according to the average paralytic and death time (Ali et al. 2012).

16.4.10 Analgesic Activity

In a mouse model of acetic acid–induced writhing and tail pressure pain, the nociceptive inhibitory properties of verbascoside were investigated. Verbascoside had a major analgesic effect when measured at 300 and 100 mg/kg. Verbascoside also had sedative properties, prolonging pentobarbital-induced anesthesia and minimizing locomotion, both of which were aided by methamphetamine (Morina et al. 2010). However, because of the sampling approach (only VB is used in these studies), the synergistic analgesic potential of all of the metabolites present in V. thapsus is largely unknown.

16.5 Phytochemistry

Glycoside, saponins, flavonoids, and terpenoids are the main phytoconstituents of V. thapsus. These phytoconstituents are partially or completely responsible for the pharmacological arrangements mentioned above. As a result, all phytoconstituents that have previously been inaccessible from V. thapsus are considered based on chemical categorization and the primary references of the fundamental studies mentioned.

16.5.1 Phenylethanoid Glycosides

A study of Warashina from V. thapsus was unable to access any phenylethanoid glycosides (H. Hussain et al. 2009). These include arenarioside, cistanoside B, alyssonoside, forsythoside B, 1′-O-β-d-(3-hydroxy-4-methoxy-phenyl)ethyl-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 3′)-β-d xylopyranosyl-(1 → 6′)-4′-O-feruloylglucopyranoside, 1′-O-β-d (3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-ethyl-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 3′)3′- hydroxy-4′-O-β-d, glucopyranosyl-cinnamoyl-(1 → 6′) glucopyranoside,alyssonoside,1′-O-β-d-(3,4dihydroxy-phenyl)-ethyl-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl (1 → 3′)-β-d-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 6′)-4′-O-feruloylglucopyranoside, and leucosceptoside (Warashina et al. 1992). Ergosterol peroxide, docosanoic acid, oleanolic acid, and β-sitosterol were inaccessible from blossoms of V. thapsus (Milne and Abbott 2002).

16.5.2 Iridoid Glycosides

Verbascoside is a typical case of iridoid glycosides that were discovered much earlier than expected in the leaves of V. thapsus (Hattori and Shiroya 1951). The sum of aucubin, an iridoid glycoside, obtained from roots was significantly higher than segments (Seifert et al. 1985a). After segregation, an ethanolic extricate of the roots of V. thapsus that display anti-germination property on barley (Hordeum vulgare) kernels yields numerous iridoids containing harpagoside, ajugol, laterioside, and aucubin (Pardo et al. 1998). Isocatalpol, methylcatalpol (2 h), and 6-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol are some of the other iridoid glycosides that have been found. (Pardo et al. 1998). Warashina et al. spotted numerous iridoids from the entire herbal of V. thapsus, including 6-O-[3″-O-(3,4-dimethoxy-transcinnamoyl)] saccatoside, α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol [6-O-(3′-O-p-coumaryl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol] (2m),6-O-(4″-O-p-coumaroyl) α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol, verbascoside A, 6-O-[2″-O-(3,4-dihydroxy-trans-cinnamoyl)] α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol, 6-O-[4″-O-(3,4-dihydroxy-trans-cinnamoyl)]-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol,6-O-(2″-O-(p-methoxy-trans-cinnamoyl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol, 6-O-(4″-O-isoferuloyl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol, 6-O-(2″-O-isoferuloyl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol, 6-O-(2″-O-feruloyl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol, 6-O-(3″-O-(p-methoxy-trans-cinnamoyl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol, 6-O-(4″-Oferuloyl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol and 6-O-(3″-Oisoferuloyl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl catalpol (Turker and Camper 2002). Another iridoid, harpagide, was isolated from V. thapsus inflight sections (Stavri et al. 2006). Although as from whole herbal 5-O-α-l rhamnopyranosyl (1α-3)-[α-d-glucuronopyranosyl (1α-6)]-α-d-glucopyranoside was isolated (Pardo et al. 1998). Most recently ajugol (2f), ningpogenin, 10-deoxyeucommiol, jioglutolide, 6-β-hydroxy-2-oxabicyclo[4.3.0]-Δ8–9-nonen-1one, 8-cinnamoylmyoporoside, and verbathasin A were inaccessible iridoids (Zhao et al. 2011).

16.5.3 Triterpene Tetraglycosides

Kurodo et al. recognized five triterpene tetraglycosides from the methanolic extricate of V. thapsus blossoms: buddlejasaponin I, ilwensisaponin A, ilwensisaponin B, ilwensisaponin C, and buddlejasaponin IA (Kuroda et al. 2012).

16.5.4 Saponins

From V. thapsus, different saponins which include saikogenin A, triterpene A, saikogenin B, veratric acid, α-spinasterol, thapsuine A and B (4g-h), hydroxythapsuine-A, and 3-Ofucopyranosyl saikogenin have been reported and seperated (Turker and Gurel 2005; Turker and Camper 2002; Stavri et al. 2006). These constituents may have antimicrobial, antiviral, and antitumoral activity, according to the pharmacological profile of V. thapsus.

16.5.5 Terpenes

Two sesquiterpenes: buddlindeterpene A and B from northern Pakistan; one diterpene, that is, from China GC-MS investigation of V. thapsus displayed limonene (26.57%), cineole (7.24%), caryophyllene oxide (5.91%), pinene (4.72%) 5 g, from V. thapsus whole plant (Hussain et al. 2009), and essential to terpenes (Dzubak et al. 2006). These multiplexes can also play a role in V. thapsus pharmacological movement across a wide spectrum.

16.5.6 Flavonoids and Carotenoids

Flavonoids have the ability to counteract the effects of reactive free radicals, and as a result, they have a high standing in antioxidant, cancer, diabetes, and a diversity of other diseases associated to oxidative stress (Nijveldt et al. 2001). The leaf total phenolic content was 0.124 mg/g dry weight, stem 0.166 mg/g dry weight, and root total flavonoid content was 0.024 mg/g dry weight (Kogje et al. 2010). The configuration of flavonoids was investigated in the roots and aerial sections of plants, which are stems, leaves, blossoms, and seeds, from 22 Verbascum species (Kalinina et al. 2014). Seven flavonoids from V. thapsus were inaccessible: acacetin-7-O-d-glucoside, luteolin, cynaroside, kaempferol, quercetin, and rutin. A new flavonoid, apigetrin, has been discovered in a 70% aqueous acetone inflight concentrate (Zhao et al. 2011). Separation and classification of another new flavonoid, 4′7-dihydroxyflavone-4′-rhamnoside, as well as 6-hydroxyluteolin-7-glucoside and 3′-methylquercetin, from the leaves and flowers of V. thapsus has also been identified (Souleles and Geronikaki 1989). Carotenoids, especially zeaxanthin, have been extracted from the seed oil of V. thapsus and may be used as dietary sources. Another research discovered that V. thapsus seed oils have relatively greater α-tocopherol levels, with a ratio of 1:10 for α- to γ-isomers (Jia et al. 2009).

16.5.7 Carbohydrates

Verbascose, sucrose, hepatose, octaose, and nonaose are some of the carbohydrates isolated from V. thapsus (Turker and Gurel 2005; Hattori and Hatanaka 1958).

Some examples of constructions can be found in Table 16.2.

Table 16.2 Structures of active constituents of Verbascum thapsus
Full size table

16.6 Toxicity Studies

There is no details on the mullein flower’s genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive, or developmental effects. The operation and toxicity of certain V. nigrum extricates and decoctions were investigated. The extracts of V. nigrum had a low toxicity profile. During the 72-h period following the supervision of doses up to 5000 mg/kg, no effect on mouse behavioral responses, and no cases of transience were noticed (Kalinina et al. 2014). A radish kernel and brine shrimp bioassay were used to assess the toxicity of various V. thapsus abstracts. At the higher doses of 1000 mg/dL, all of the extracts (water, methanol, and ethanol) were found to be healthy. Surprisingly, aqueous extract decoction was more toxic than distillation, suggesting that it may involve increased toxic complexes than other forms of extricates. A case study on the effects of a herbal drug amalgamation called CKLS (colon, kidney, liver, spleen) that contains V. thapsus as one of the main ingredients is very interesting. The patient developed severe kidney damage after a 5-day course of CKLS. Despite the fact that CKLS contains 10 other plant mixtures, further research is needed to rule out V. thapsus as a cause of nephrotoxicity, particularly because herbal drugs are frequently dismissed.

16.7 Conclusion

The multiple benefits of V. thapsus made it a true miracle of nature. It significantly possesses a variety of secondary metabolites, thus representing useful sources of bioactive compounds and preparation with healthy encouraging effects such as anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, cardiovascular, antitumor, etc. The diverse effects of mullein are attributed to the presence of various triterpene, fatty acids, and phytosterols. The pharmacological investigation confirmed the empirical traditional application of mullein in humans for the treatment of digestive disorders, tumor formation, urinary tract infection, and certain skin diseases. Mullein evaluated for phytochemical constituents had great potential to act as a source of useful lead molecules and ameliorate health condition of consumers due to the presence of various bioactive compounds that are indispensable for good health.