Antifouling paints containing active biocides are typically used on the hulls of ships and boats to prevent the growth of fouling organisms. Antifouling paint biocides are therefore released directly into surface waters following their release from painted surfaces or from the inappropriate disposal of paint related waste. The levels of biocides found in surface waters are therefore directly related to the amount released from such surfaces. Once in the water column, antifouling biocides, as with all other contaminants, are subjected to a number of environmental processes that control their environmental fate. Depending on their physico-chemical properties, biocides can partition onto sediments and accumulate in biological material. In order to measure the occurrence of antifouling biocides in water, sediments and biota analytical methods have been developed and applied. This chapter will review the data available on the occurrence of the biocides listed below in surface waters, sediments and biota for Europe and the Americas, including Canada, USA and the Caribbean (Fig. 19.1).
Access provided by Autonomous University of Puebla. Download to read the full chapter text
Chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Keywords
- Antifouling Paint
- Pressure Chemical Ionisation Mass Spectrometry
- Antifouling Agent
- Zinc Pyrithione
- Antifouling Compound
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
References
Aguera A, Piedra L, Hernando MD et al. (2000) Multiresidue method for the analysis of five anti-fouling agents in marine and coastal waters by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with large volume injection. J Chromatogr A 889:261–269.
Albanis TA, Danis TG, Hela DG (1995) Transportation of pesticides in estuaries of Louros and Arachthos rivers (Amvrakikos Gulf, N. W. Greece). Sci Total Environ 171:85–93.
Albanis TA, Lambropoulou DA, Sakkas VA et al. (2002) Antifouling paint booster biocide contamination in greek marine sediments. Chemosphere 48:475.
Biselli S, Bester K, Huhnerfuss H et al. (2000) Concentrations of the antifouling compound Irgarol 1051 and of organotins in water and sediments of German North and Baltic Sea marinas. Mar Pollut Bull 40:233.
Boxall ABA (2004) Environmental risk assessment of antifouling biocides. Chimica Oggi 22:46.
Boxall ABA, Comber SD, Conrad AU et al. (2000) Inputs, monitoring and fate modelling of antifouling biocides in UK estuaries. Mar Pollut Bull 40:898.
Carbery K, Owen R, Frickers T et al. (2006) Contamination of Caribbean coastal waters by the antifouling herbicide Irgarol 1051. Mar Pollut Bull 52:635–644.
Cresswell T, Richards JP, Glegg GA et al. (2006) The impact of legislation on the usage and environmental concentrations of Irgarol 1051 in UK coastal waters. Mar Pollut Bull 52:1169.
Dahl B, Blanck H (1996) Toxic effects of the antifouling agent Irgarol 1051 on periphyton communities in coastal water microcosms. Mar Pollut Bull 32:342–350.
Di Landa G, Ansanelli G, Ciccoli R et al. (2006) Occurrence of antifouling paint booster biocides in selected harbors and marinas inside the Gulf of Napoli: a preliminary survey. Mar Pollut Bull 52:1541.
Ferrer I, Barceló D (1999) Simultaneous determination of antifouling herbicides in marina water samples by on-line solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography/mass spectro-metry. J Chromatogr A 854:197–206.
Ferrer I, Barceló D (2001) Identification of a new degradation product of the antifouling agent Irgarol 1051 in natural samples. J Chromatogr A 926:221–228.
Ferrer I, Ballesteros B, Marco MP et al. (1997) Pilot survey for determination of the antifouling agent Irgarol 1051 in enclosed seawater samples by a direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography-diode array detection. Environ Sci Technol 31:3530–3535.
Gardinali PR, Plasencia M, Mack S et al. (2002) Occurrence of Irgarol 1051 in coastal waters from Biscayne Bay, Florida, USA. Mar Pollut Bull 44:781–788.
Gardinali PR, Plasencia MD, Maxey C (2004) Occurrence and transport of Irgarol 1051 and its major metabolite in coastal waters from South Florida. Mar Pollut Bull 49:1072–1083.
Gatidou G, Kotrikla A, Thomaidis NS et al. (2005) Determination of the antifouling booster biocides irgarol 1051 and diuron and their metabolites in seawater by high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector. Anal Chim Acta 528:89.
Gatidou G, Thomaidis NS, Zhou JL (2007) Fate of Irgarol 1051, diuron and their main metabolites in two UK marine systems after restrictions in antifouling paints. Environ Int 33:70.
Gough MA, Fothergill J, Hendrie JD (1994) A survey of Southern England coastal waters for the s-triazine antifouling compound Irgarol 1051. Mar Pollut Bull 28:613–620.
Haglund K, Pettersson A, Peterson M et al. (2001) Seasonal distribution of the antifouling compound Irgarol® 1051 outside a marina in the Stockholm Archipelago. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 66.
Hamwijk C, Schouten A, Foekema EM et al. (2005) Monitoring of the booster biocide dichlo-fluanid in water and marine sediment of Greek marinas. Chemosphere 60:1316.
House WA, Leach D, Long JLA et al. (1997) Micro-organic compounds in the Humber rivers. Sci Total Environ 194–195:357–371.
Lambert SJ, Thomas KV, Davy AJ (2006) Assessment of the risk posed by the antifouling booster biocides Irgarol 1051 and diuron to freshwater macrophytes. Chemosphere 63:734.
Lambropoulou DA, Konstantinou IK, Albanis TA (2000) Determination of fungicides in natural waters using solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography coupled with electron- capture and mass spectrometric detection. J Chromatogr A 893:143–156.
Lamoree MH, Swart CP, Van Der Horst A et al. (2002) Determination of diuron and the anti- fouling paint biocide Irgarol 1051 in Dutch marinas and coastal waters. J Chromatogr A 970:183.
Liu DG, Pacepavicius RJM, Lau Y L et al. (1999) Survey for the occurrence of the new antifouling compound Irgarol 1051 in the aquatic environment. Water Res 33:2833–2843.
Mackie DS, van den Berg CMG, Readman JW (2004) Determination of pyrithione in natural waters by cathodic stripping voltammetry. Anal Chim Acta 511:47–53.
Martínez K, Ferrer I, Barceló D (2000) Part-per-trillion level determination of antifouling pesticides and their byproducts in seawater samples by off-line solid-phase extraction followed by high-performance liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 879:27–37.
Martínez K, Ferrer I, Hernando MD et al. (2001) Occurrence of antifouling biocides in the Spanish Mediterranean marine environment. Environ Technol 22:543.
Owen R, Knap A, Toaspern M et al. (2002) Inhibition of coral photosynthesis by the antifouling herbicide Irgarol 1051. Mar Pollut Bull 44:623–632.
Readman JW (2006) Development, occurrence and regulation of antifouling paint biocides: Historical review and future trends. Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, Volume 5: Water Pollution. Springer, Berlin: 1.
Readman JW, Liong Wee Kwong L, Grondlin D et al. (1993) Coastal water contamination from a triazine herbicide used in antifouling paints. Environ Sci Technol 27:1940–1942.
Sakkas VA , Konstantinou IK, Albanis TA (2002a) Aquatic phototransformation study of the antifouling agent Sea-Nine 211: identification of byproducts and the reaction pathway by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. J Chromatogr A 959:215.
Sakkas VA , Konstantinou IK, Lambropoulou DA et al. (2002b) Survey for the occurrence of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment of Greece. Environ Sci Pollut Res 9:327.
Sapozhnikova Y, Wirth E, Schiff K et al. (2007) Antifouling pesticides in the coastal waters of Southern California. Mar Pollut Bull 54:1972–1978.
Sargent CJ, Bowman JC Zhou JL (2000) Levels of antifoulant Irgarol 1051 in the Conwy Marina, North Wales. Chemosphere 41:1755–1760.
Scarlett A, Donkin ME, Fileman TW et al. (1997) Occurrence of the marine antifouling agent Irgarol 1051 within the Plymouth Sound locality: implications for the Green Macroalga Enteromorpha intestinalis. Mar Pollut Bull 34:645–651.
Scarlett A, Donkin P, Fileman TW et al. (1999) Occurrence of the antifouling herbicide, Irgarol 1051, within coastal-water seagrasses from Queensland, Australia. Mar Pollut Bull 38:687.
Schouten A, Mol H, Hamwijk C et al. (2005) Critical aspects in the determination of the antifouling compound dichlofluanid and its metabolite DMSA (N,N-dimethyl-N?-phenylsulfamide) in seawater and marine sediments. Chromatographia 62:511.
Steen RJCA, Leonards PEG, Brinkman UAT et al. (1997) Ultra-trace-level determination of the antifouling agent Irgarol 1051 by gas chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection. J Chromatogr A 766:153–158.
Steen RJCA, Ariese F, Hattum BV et al. (2004) Monitoring and evaluation of the environmental dissipation of the marine antifoulant 4,5-dichloro-2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one (DCOIT) in a Danish Harbor. Chemosphere 57:513.
Thomas KV (1998) Determination of selected antifouling booster biocides by high-performance liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 825:29.
Thomas KV (1999) Determination of the antifouling agent zinc pyrithione in water samples by copper chelate formation and high-performance liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 833:105.
Thomas K V, Blake SJ, Waldock MJ (2000) Antifouling paint booster biocide contamination in UK marine sediments. Mar Pollut Bull 40:739.
Thomas K V, Fileman TW, Readman JW et al. (2001) Antifouling paint booster biocides in the UK coastal environment and potential risks of biological effects. Mar Pollut Bull 42:677.
Thomas KV, McHugh M, Waldock M (2002) Antifouling paint booster biocides in UK coastal waters: inputs, occurrence and environmental fate. Sci Total Environ 293:117.
Thomas K V, McHugh M, Hilton M et al. (2003) Increased persistence of antifouling paint biocides when associated with paint particles. Environ Pollut 123:153.
Tolosa I, Readman JW, Blaevoet A et al. (1996) Contamination of Mediterranean (Cote d'Azur) coastal waters by organotins and Irgarol 1051 used in antifouling paints. Mar Pollut Bull 32:335.
Tóth S, Becker-van Slooten K, Spack L et al. (1996) Irgarol 1051, an antifouling compound in freshwater, sediment, and biota of Lake Geneva. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 57:426–433.
Turley PA, Fenn RJ, Ritter JC (2000) Pyrithiones as antifoulants: Environmental chemistry and preliminary risk assessment. Biofouling 15:175.
Voulvoulis N (2006) Antifouling paint booster biocides: Occurrence and partitioning in water and sediments. Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, Volume 5: Water Pollution. Springer,Berlin: 155.
Voulvoulis N, Scrimshaw MDLester JN (2000) Occurrence of four biocides utilized in antifouling paints, as alternatives to organotin compounds, in waters and sediments of a commercial estuary in the UK. Mar Pollut Bull 40:938.
Zhou L, Fileman TW, Evans S et al. (1996) Seasonal distribution of dissolved pesticides and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the Humber Estuary and Humber coastal zone. Mar Pollut Bull 32:599–608.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Thomas, K.V., Langford, K.H. (2009). Europe and USA. In: Arai, T., Harino, H., Ohji, M., Langston, W.J. (eds) Ecotoxicology of Antifouling Biocides. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-85709-9_19
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-85709-9_19
Publisher Name: Springer, Tokyo
Print ISBN: 978-4-431-85708-2
Online ISBN: 978-4-431-85709-9
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)