Keywords

1 Introduction

About 11,000 years ago, our primitive ancestors, who lived in the region between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris in stone age when pottery was unknown (Neolithic age without pottery), had architectural skills and they had gathered in regular intervals (at Göbekli Tepe) for religious rituals. Gatherings due to these rituals had led to sedentary life [1] in time. The need for sheltering that started with the existence resulted with the concept of housing and has gone through various phases in parallel with sedentary life and urbanization. Urbanization is a process experienced in parallel with industrialization and economic development. Due to rapid population growth and industrialization, migration from rural areas to urban areas has increased and resulted in rapid urbanization accompanied by unhealthy life conditions in cities.

Rapid urbanization resulted with certain problems. Housing problem caused by the migration to cities following industrialization has led to unhealthy and irregular building and need for energy has increased. With the increasing energy demand, a great majority of natural resources are being used in the construction industry, particularly at high-rise buildings. It becomes increasingly impossible to meet energy needs of high-rise buildings with nonrenewable resources. Nevertheless, under today’s conditions and with current technology, use of renewable energy sources is a very expensive method. In order to meet increasing energy demand, it is required to use existing energy in an efficient and productive way. For this purpose, this study suggests a conceptual framework including principles, strategies and methods related to energy efficient building design while examples of energy-efficient high-rise buildings applied worldwide are examined within the suggested framework.

2 An Examination of Energy-Efficient Building Design Parameters

Due to the increasing need of energy in cities, studies on energy-city relationship in urban planning processes have gained importance. Principles, strategies and methods for energy efficient urban planning of eligible and habitable residential and natural environment are proposed in the paper by Yücel Yıldırım et al. [2] are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Principles, strategies and methods of energy-efficient urban planning
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Today, a great majority of natural resources utilized in all areas of life, including transportation, industry and building, are being used in the construction industry, which deteriorates ecological balance and makes environment having harmful impact on human health. Solution of environment and energy problems relies on increasing use of renewable energy sources and efficient use of energy. Design parameters on efficient use of energy in construction industry may be listed as follows [3, 4]:

  • Selection of location,

  • Topography,

  • Position of the building and its distance to other buildings,

  • Direction of the building,

  • Form of the building,

  • Building facade’s physical properties that affect heat transmission,

  • Outdoor brightness level,

  • Non-building obstacles that may affect climate and visual comfort,

  • Physical properties of the building’s indoor spaces,

  • Dimensions and structure of building components such as windows and glasses,

  • Properties of components constituting artificial lighting system,

  • Solar control and natural ventilation systems.

In consideration of methodologies and data presented in articles by Gültekin and Yavaşbatmaz [5], Koç and Gültekin [6], Gültekin [7], Yılmaz and Hotunluoğlu [8], Barış [9], and Bashiri and Begeç [10], RoT Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources General Directorate of Renewable Energy year 2012 Activity Report [11] and Urbanisation Council Commission Report [12], book composed by Atabay et al. [13], MA thesis of Zinzade [14], “Regulation on Principles and Procedures Pertinent to Increasing Energy Efficiency in Transport” issued by the Ministry of Transportation [15], principles (P), strategies (S) and methods (M) on energy-efficient urban planning were assessed with design parameters related to energy-efficient building design. In conclusion to this paper, methods relevant to energy-efficient building design were presented from Tables 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 and a conceptual framework was suggested.

Table 2. A conceptual framework on energy-efficient building design (energy conservation)
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Table 3. A conceptual framework on energy-efficient building design (land conservation)
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Table 4. A conceptual framework on energy-efficient building design (water conservation)
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Table 5. A conceptual framework on energy-efficient building design (waste reduction)
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Table 6. A conceptual framework on energy-efficient building design (ensuring accessibility)
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3 An Examination of Worldwide Energy-Efficient Building Design on High-Rise Buildings

Importance of efficient use of energy has been perceived in different manners in each country and in this context; different solutions and recommendations have been suggested. United States of America (USA) became one of leading countries to realize importance of energy efficiency and starting from 1970s, when an oil crisis was experienced, studies on energy efficiency were continued with an increasing momentum.

In consequence of the energy efficiency studies conducted in USA, achievements were obtained between the years 1973 and 2005, such as significant contribution to protection of environment, improving energy efficiency of household appliances, and avoiding construction of further power plants. Furthermore, USA did not find those achievements sufficient and a national action plan called “Vision 2025” was prepared in 2008 due to reasons such as energy efficiency is an untouched and low cost energy source which enhances energy supply security and reduces future risks of carbon policies that are already ruled by uncertainty [16].

On the other hand, European Union (EU) member states, starting from the beginning of 1970s, have implemented studies in order to reduce dependency on oil, enhance energy supply security, support competition by decreasing energy costs, reduce unemployment, protect the environment and minimize emission of greenhouse gases [16]. EU Commission, with its indirect taxation study in the year 2007, revised the Directive on Energy Taxation, attempted to introduce an encouraging energy taxation system, has examined the benefits of tax reductions and other incentives to increase the production of high energy efficient certified equipment and devices [17]. Furthermore, the EU, concerning energy savings, has enacted the Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2002 on the Energy Performance of Buildings [18], Council Directive 2003/96/EC of 27 October 2003 Restructuring the Community Framework for the Taxation of Energy Products and Electricity [19], Commission Directive 2003/66/EC of 3 July 2003 Amending Directive 94/2/EC Implementing Council Directive 92/75/EEC with Regard to Energy Labelling of Household Electric Refrigerators, Freezers and Their Combinations [20], Communication from the Commission on the Implementation of the Energy Star Programme in the European Union in the Period 2006–2010 [21], Evaluation of the Energy Labelling and Eco-design Directives [22] and Directive 2006/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2006 on Energy End-Use Efficiency and Energy Services and Repealing Council Directive 93/76/EEC [17, 23].

In Japan, where negative impact of the 1970s oil crisis was experienced, “Energy Conservation Laws” [24] was revised in 1999. In Japan, where energy efficiency studies are supported by the government through financial models that include tax incentives, long-term reimbursement credits, industrial corporations and the public support the studies on a voluntary basis and city governments are implementing from time to time various efficiency programs within their boundaries [25, 26].

In the process of design and application procedures of buildings, which have a major share in worldwide energy consumption, efficient use of energy shall be enabled when the legislative regulations and methods presented in the Table 2 evaluated together.

Due to decreasing energy resources and increasing environmental problems in the world, design and application of energy-efficient high-rise buildings are on the rise. Because initial investment costs of these buildings are high, office building applications are more commonly observed. In this paper, it has been examined whether the high-rise building examples in the literature are constructed according to the methods related to energy-efficient building design and whether the methods are fully implemented. Visionaire Building, Solaire Building and Helena Building in USA, Burj Mohammed Bin Rashid Tower in the United Arab Emirates, Telus Garden Building in Canada and Sky Terrace @Dawson Building in Singapore are some of the energy-efficient high-rise building projects. These examples, in consideration of methods of energy-efficient design listed in Tables 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, are examined in the Table 7.

Table 7. High-rise building examples constructed in accordance with energy-efficient building design approach
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When it comes to energy-efficient building design approach, we failed to obtain sufficient information on international examples of high-rise buildings from literature. Therefore, examples of housing projects presented in the Table 7 were examined on limited information. It was found out that methods listed in the suggested conceptual framework are being partially implemented in the examples of high-rise building projects.

It is observed that methods such as utilization of renewable energy sources, application of rainwater collection and treatment systems, reuse of treated waste water at appropriate areas, application of green roof systems to reduce the heat island effect, use of devices with high efficiency for water saving, use of local and recyclable construction materials, making use of natural lighting and ventilation to reduce energy consumption and application of high-performance facade and glass systems to decrease heat loss have come into prominence. We failed to get access to information such as positions, building directions, topographic compatibility and preservation of natural resources at buildings.

4 Conclusion and Suggestions

In today’s world, where most of the world population lives in cities, it is a rather expensive method to provide all of increasing energy need from renewable energy sources with today’s technology and conditions. It is therefore necessary to use existing energy efficiently and productively, which is a cheaper application to meet the increased energy need.

The conceptual framework suggested in this study may be adopted as a guideline in energy efficient building design, and consequently, may be used as a guide for different disciplines. In energy-efficient building design, although application of systems and studies that enhance energy performance increase initial investment costs, operation and maintenance costs required throughout the life of these buildings may be 5–10 times bigger than these application costs [50]. Accordingly, efficient and productive utilization of energy and renewable energy resources must be adopted as a government policy, and the public awareness must be increased. People shall be more selective as public awareness increases on efficient and productive utilization of energy, and investments of lesser energy consumption for less money shall be taken into consideration. In today’s world, where economic growth and social welfare lead to more energy consumption, decrease in energy consumption, preservation of the environment, and reduction the burden of energy costs on the economy shall be provided with the enforcement of laws and regulations for efficient and productive utilization of energy.

Since energy is one of the elements that affect production costs at the highest level, generating the same quantity of output by using technologies that require less energy consumption for energy efficiency may result in decrease in costs. This will enhance competitive capacities of countries. Furthermore, by efficient use of energy, consumption will be lessened and accordingly, the countries’ dependency on foreign energy sources will be reduced.