Keywords

Introduction

Mangroves cover about 140 km2 in Ghana. They are limited to very narrow, noncontinuous coastal areas around lagoons in the west of the country; to the east, they are found on the fringes of the lower reaches of the Volta River delta (UNEP 2007). In western Ghana, the most extensive stretches are between Cape Three Points and the border with La Côte d’Ivoire. Six genera of mangroves, typical of west–central African mangroves, are found in Ghana: Acrostichum aurerum, Avicennia germinans, Conocarpus erectus, Laguncularia racemosa, Rhizophora harrisonii and Rhizophora racemosa The open lagoons tend to be dominated by R. racemosa, while closed lagoons with an elevated salinity harbour A. germinans, C. erectus, L. racemosa and A. aurerum (UNEP 2007).

Ghana’s mangrove ecosystems are tremendously valuable, providing ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, protection from storms, floods, erosion, provision of timber and nontimber forest products, processing of waste and nutrient pollution, aquaculture and agriculture support and habitat for aquatic and terrestrial species. In the lower Volta area, the total estimated value, including mangrove-related harvesting for fish smoking or house roofing (US$340/ha) and contribution to marine fisheries (US$165/ha), is over US$500/ha, with total country estimates of well over US$6,000,000/year. These values do not include all the other mangrove ecosystem services (e.g. erosion control, trapping of pollutants and provision of biomass for the detritivore food chain) (Gordon et al. 2009). Yet, as in many other parts of the world, short-term development needs are undermining long-term mangrove health and survival. Between 1980 and 2006, the mangrove area in Ghana fell from 181 to 137 km2 representing a loss of 24 % (UNEP 2007; Ajonina et al. 2008).

Economic mechanisms have the potential to tip the balance towards restoration, maintenance and protection of mangrove forests. The need for proper valuation of mangrove ecosystem services underpins such mechanisms, including the establishment of any realistic payment for ecosystem services (PES) schemes in any given mangrove or wetland habitat. The objective of this study was to assess the types and conditions of mangroves and associated ecosystem services (e.g. carbon sequestration, wood collection and tourism) in the field for use in feasibility assessment for PES schemes in the mangroves and wetlands in Greater Amanzule and surrounding areas in coastal Western Region of Ghana. This study provides an analysis of the types of mangroves and wetlands, their status and distribution in the coastal Western Region; gathers information about the uses and governance of these wetlands; and provides insights into the use of information gathered in feasibility assessments of the potential for PES in the mangroves and wetlands in the region.

Methods

Site Description

Location of the Survey Area

The survey area lies within the Amanzule wetlands, which is a community-owned wetland with no official conservation status in the eastern and western Nzema traditional areas of the Western Region (Fig. 1). The catchment of the wetland lies within the Western Evergreen Forest zone of Ghana. It covers an area of approximately 100 square km and lies within latitudes 4°53′ and 4°46′ north and longitude 2°00′ and 2°05′ west, 360 km west of Accra. The mangrove areas lie within the Greater Amanzule region in the Jomoro district, Ellembelle, Nzema east and Ahanta west districts of the Western Region.

Fig. 1
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Map of wetlands distribution in Western Region (Greater Amanzule covers wetlands from Ivory Coast border to Ankobra River)

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Biophysical Environment

The region lies in the equatorial climate zone characterized by moderate temperatures. About 75 % of the land area falls within Ghana’s high forest zone. The area is characterized by high rainfall with a double maximum and peaks in May–June and October–November each year. The average annual rainfall is 1,600 mm with the relative humidity being 87.5 %, at a mean annual temperature of 26 °C. There is a short dry season (December–March) during which a south-westerly directional wind is experienced with slight Harmattan conditions.

The soil is predominantly Forest Oxysols and Forest Ochrosols-Oxysols intergrades. Its hydrology is driven by six streams, one lake, the Amanzule freshwater lake and one outlet to the sea. The area is subject to seasonal flooding. The Amanzule wetlands is a relatively pristine complex consisting of a freshwater lake, forest, grasslands and rivers. It has the most extensive remaining stand of intact swamp forest in Ghana. These extensive swamps are outside the mangrove areas. Swamps cover about 70 % of the area and associated with a dense hydrological network. Within the area, there is still some logging of an important swamp forest species—Lophira alata (ironwood)—for charcoal. The Amanzule wetlands is the only known swamp forest in Ghana and the best example of swamp forest characterized with black humic water. Some 70 % of the site is covered by swamp forest making accessibility difficult, hence contributing to its unspoiled nature. The area has a rich biodiversity and in terms of flora: 33 % of the 237 species of plants identified are endemic to the wetland. Notable species include raffia palm and ironwood (L. alata). Faunal reports (GWS 2003) estimate 27 species of mammals, including black-and-white colobus, mona and spot-nosed monkeys; forest squirrels; and Red River hog. Twenty-six species of reptiles and amphibians, including the slender-snouted crocodile and the dwarf crocodile, green mambas and black forest cobra, and 26 species of fish have been recorded. The wetland is relatively rich in indigenous avifauna and also hosts various migrant species. Over 105 species of birds were recorded in an inventory, 65 of which are of global and national conservation interest. The area is classified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) (Birdlife International 2007), and it meets the criteria for designation as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention. Another important biodiversity characteristic of the site is that the coastal sandy beaches are important turtle nesting sites. Species recorded include the leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coreacea (common); green turtle, Cheloniamydas (common); olive ridley turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea (most common); and hawksbill, Eretmochelys imbricate (rare) (NCRC/Beyin Beach Resort 2000). Increasing development trends place these wetlands and its biodiversity at further risk. A particular concern is that the wetlands, which are important nursery grounds for many demersal fish species and habitat for birds, mammals and reptiles, are becoming increasingly vulnerable to degradation from development.

Socio-Economic Environment and Human Activities

Generally, the foundation of the economy in Western Region of Ghana and particularly the goods and services traded can be summarized as fish, port services, cocoa, gold, bauxite, manganese, tourism, timber and oil and gas (a new development trend). There is a strong agricultural base, with the agricultural sector employing nearly 60 % of the economically active population in the region. The main crops harvested are rubber, coconut and cocoa, accounting for the largest share of national production. Recently, coconut production has suffered due to Cape Saint Paul wilt disease, which is destroying coconut plantations. Food crop production, on the other hand, is quite low, contributing less than 8 % to national production—which may be due to the lower revenues when compared to other crops (cocoa, coconut, etc.). The six major food crops cultivated in the area are maize, rice, cassava, yam, cocoyam and plantain. Activities within the mangrove areas include fishing, local gin processing, charcoal production, small-scale farming of crops such as coconut, oil palm, cassava, cocoa and plantain, and small-scale trading.

Data and Information Collection and Analysis

Both primary and secondary data collection approaches were used for the study. A combination of stakeholder discussions and on-the-ground surveys was used. A participatory approach was adopted by interactive discussion of basic issues during various consultative meetings and interviews organized with local institutions to gather information about the governance of these wetlands and to discuss the potential for developing a blue carbon project in the region. The institutions included local authorities (district assemblies), private sector operators (especially tourism), community groups, and NGOs, especially Nature Conservation and Research Center (NCRC) and Coastal Resources Center (CRC). Discussions with NCRC and CRC focused on their planned larger-scale carbon mapping work.

Survey of Mangrove Sites

Eighteen mangrove sites were visited during the field trip spanning five days from 11 to 15 September 2011, guided by information on existence of mangroves from many local informants. Data and information collected from each site visited included the following:

  • GPS fixes and estimation of mangrove area from maximum width and length for mapping purposes using GIS software (ARC/Info and ArcView),

  • mangrove type (estuarine, lagoonal, etc.),

  • tidal exchange status,

  • health status of the mangrove, based on foliage conditions and live–crown ratios,

  • main adjoining vegetation,

  • population, institutional and stakeholders issues around mangroves,

  • community perception of trends of mangrove area change during the last 10–20 years,

  • main activities within mangroves,

  • current uses and potential threats,

  • options for future management practices and policies.

Assessing Mangrove Ecosystem Services

Carbon storage and sequestration services

The carbon storage and sequestration potential of the mangroves were measured through the establishment of 0.01 ha (10 m × 10 m) temporal sample plots (TSPs) systematically laid at 10-m intervals along a random 30-m transect and compass direction from a fixed point. This is a simplified modification of 6 (10 m × 10 m) plots laid along a 100-m transect used in the central African coastal region of Cameroon (Ajonina 2008). A total of four TSPs were assessed in four mangrove sites (1 TSP per site) and one plot in a degraded mangrove site. The diameter at breast height (at 1.3 m) (dbh) or at 30 cm above the stilt root was measured for all trees within the plot with a diameter tape and stand height determined by means of a Suunto clinometer. Roots and seedlings not measured in the plots were counted in five 1-m2 plots placed systematically at 1-m intervals along the 10 m × 10 m plot (Fig. 2). Middle diameter and height of the roots and seedlings were also measured.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Schematic layout of mangrove stands temporal sample plots (a) for measurement of all trees and stems diameter at breast height (1.3 cm) dbh ≥1 cm and (b) for counting seedlings and samplings ≤1 cm and stilt roots, with measurement of middle diameter and height of stilt root in 1 m2 quadrats systematically laid along transect axis

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The tree and stand data obtained were used to obtain estimates for aboveground mangrove forest carbon densities from biomass assessment, following various standard volume estimation procedures (Loetsch et al. 1973; Cailliez 1980; Husch et al. 2003):

Basal area per hectare

$$ {\text{BA}} = \pi /4\sum {\left( {f_{i} d_{i}^{2} } \right)/A} $$
(1)

Volume per hectare

$$ {V_{s}} = {\text{BA}} \cdot H \cdot F $$
(2)

where

BA:

basal area per hectare (m2 ha−1)

V s :

standing volume per hectare (m3 ha−1)

d i :

diameter (in metres)

F :

tree form factor (0.6) (from Ajonina and Usongo 2001)

H :

canopy height above stilt root (m) or height of roots or seedlings

A :

plot area in hectares

f i :

number of trees in the ith DSR class.

Carbon density was estimated as half the biomass obtained from product of volume and mangrove’s mean wood density value of 0.890 t/m3 (Feamside 1997) and biomass expansion factor of 1.18 (Ajonina 2008).

Mangrove Wood Use and Impacts on Mangrove Forest

A detailed mangrove wood-use survey was carried out in the Effasu fishing community area known for intensive use of mangroves for fish smoking. Mangrove wood stocks owned by householdsFootnote 1 in the area were estimated as well as estimates of turnover rates by members of the household for cooking and fish smoking activities. The information and data from mangrove forest stock assessment were then used to estimate the rate of deforestation (Ajonina and Usongo 2001; Ajonina et al. 2005):

Per household

$$ D_{h} = 52V_{h} /t $$
(3)

Total rate of deforestation (volume estimate)

$$ D_{t} = nD_{h} $$
(4)

Total rate of deforestation (per hectare estimate)

$$ D_{r} = {D_{t}} /{V_{s}} $$
(5)

where

D h :

household deforestation rate (m3 household −1 year−1)

V h :

mean household wood stock (m3)

t :

turnover rate (in weeks)

n :

total number of households

D t :

total rate of deforestation (m3 year−1)

D r :

total rate of deforestation (ha year−1)

V s :

mangrove stocking rate (m3 ha−1).

Results and Discussions

Status and Threats of Mangrove Ecosystem Services

General Status of Mangroves

The current general status of the mangroves in the Greater Amanzule wetlands based on the 18 sites surveyed is presented in Table 1 and the mangrove distribution map in Fig. 3.

Table 1 Appraisal of mangrove status and condition in the Greater Amanzule wetlands (based on 18 mangrove sites), Ghana
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Fig. 3
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Map of Greater Amanzule wetlands showing distribution of surveyed mangrove sites

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The survey showed that over 1,000 ha of mangrove forests exists in scattered pockets of less than 10 ha (in 50 % of the sites) in the Amanzule area, representing about 10 % of national mangrove coverage of 14,000 ha following UNEP (2007) subregional survey (Table 1). Most of the mangroves that do not appear in the current vegetation map of the area are of the estuarine mangrove type (61 %) (the area is known to cover about 70 % of swamp forests, including mangroves, but it has been difficult to measure how much has been lost); generally healthy (44 %); reaching a canopy height of 30 m in areas surrounded by coconut plantations (61 %); supporting the livelihoods (from wood demands and use as estimated from this survey); and securities of a surrounding fishing or farming human population, generally of less than 500 people (56 %).

There was a general perception by mangrove communities in 50 % of the sites surveyed that these mangroves have decreased in area over the last 20 years. Identified threats include wood collection for fuelwood, charcoal, construction, etc.; pollution from waste disposal from urban centres and mining activities; and river mouth closure due to sedimentation that impedes tidal flows that maintain mangrove ecological processes. However, there has been no cutting of mangroves in over 60 % of the sites due to effective prohibitions. These include community-based by-laws as a result of public education campaigns by NGOs which have been operating in the areas concerned and also the enforcement of traditional norms in some limited cases.

Carbon Storage Potential

The total aboveground carbon stored in intact mangroves in the area (see Table 2 and stem-size class distribution in Fig. 4) ranges from 65 to 422 tC/ha per ha with mean of 185 tC/ha with mangrove aboveground roots (aerial roots), holding in some cases 78 % of the aboveground biomass in degraded mangrove areas. It should be noted that belowground carbon storage accounts for up to 98 % of total whole-ecosystem storage in mangrove ecosystems, based on a recent quantification of whole-ecosystem carbon storage by Donato et al. (2011), so in actual fact, carbon sequestration by mangroves is much larger than measured in this study.

Table 2 Stand structural characteristics and aboveground carbon stocks of intact and degraded Rhizophora-dominated mangroves in the Greater Amanzule wetlands, Ghana
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Fig. 4
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Stem diameter distribution in mangrove forests of Greater Amanzule wetlands, Ghana

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Mangrove Wood Consumption and Impacts on Mangrove Forests

The mangrove is currently valued for fuelwood use at 4,146 Ghanaian cedis (US$2,765) per ha within the Effasu community (Table 3)—well above estimates of US$340/ha in the lower Volta (Gordon et al. 2009). Wood consumption is lower than estimates from a similar typical Cameroon mangrove fishing community (Table 4). Mangrove wood consumption for cooking and fish smoking from the Effasu community is estimated at 16 and 97 m3/household/year, respectively, and per capita consumption is 1.8 and 10.8 m3/person/year, respectively. Current deforestation rate for cooking and fish smoking is estimated at 0.06 and 0.34 ha/household/year, respectively, with a per-hectare harvest rate of 0.006 and 0.038 ha/person/year, respectively.

Table 3 Characteristics of mangrove wood use and per ha value of mangroves for fuelwood within a typical fishing community (Effasu, Greater Amanzule wetlands, Ghana)
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Table 4 Community fuelwood consumption and impacts on surrounding mangrove forests within the Effasu fishing community (Greater Amanzule wetlands, Ghana)
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Wood consumption for fish smoking was generally 1.1–1.3 times lower than that for a Cameroonian fishing community owing to the use of more efficient fish smoking ovens.

Importance and Opportunities for Local Tourism Industry Development

The Ghana Wildlife Society (GWS) has been playing a critical conservation role in the area, especially as it has introduced small-scale development projects that protect biodiversity while enhancing the economy. In addition, they promote activities that have minimal impacts on the wetlands. To promote tourism, they have built walkways and provided boats to view plant and animal species in the reserve. As a result, the number of tourists has been on the increase since 2006 to more than 10,000 annually (Fig. 5), generating annual revenues of nearly 24,000 Ghanaian cedis (US$16,000).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Monthly and yearly distribution of tourist visits from two touristic sites located around Amanzule wetlands, Ghana (Source Data from Ghanaian tourism review)

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Fig. 6
figure 6

Monthly and yearly trends in tourism revenue from two touristic sites located around Amanzule wetlands, Ghana (Source Data from Ghanaian tourism review, Ghana Tourist Board, Ministry of Tourism, Ghana)

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GWS reaches out to the community and the schools in an effort to educate the population about conservation. In east Nzulezo, they have a task force office that distributes information on protecting the turtle populations in 5 km stretches along the length of the major nesting beaches. The task force works with the local law enforcement to discourage people from eating turtles and turtle eggs. They monitor the turtle nesting sites and collect information on the number of different species, the number of eggs and the distance of the nest from the high tideline. To protect the turtle populations, they will sometimes move the eggs to a hatchery until the turtles are ready for release to the sea. In the last two years, they have recorded over 200 turtle nesting sites. And villagers who once hunted the turtles now volunteer on the task force to protect them. Six of the local communities have donated land to the reserve and work with GWS on various projects. In return, the profits are shared among the communities. The people take pride in their communities and the reserve, and the success of the project has provided electricity and better roads in the villages. The people now harvest and store fish instead of turtles and profit from tourist activities including homestays. The efforts of GWS have provided a means of sustainable development for the lagoon and reserve that have caught the attention of the government of Ghana and private tourism operators, especially the Eco-Lodge at Beyin (Fig. 7). Recently, they recognized the success of the Amanzule Conservation and Integrated Development Project during a presentation at a government conference (Fig. 6).

Fig. 7
figure 7

Private tourism operators’ case of Eco-Lodge at Beyin (the proprietor in red shorts) (Photograph by Nicolas Jengere)

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Prospects of Oil and Gas Industry

A number of interesting concerns are posed and questions asked in a recent coastal publication Hen Mpoano—Our Coast, Our Future, Western Region of Ghana (Anon. 2010) concerning booming prospects of oil and gas and the impacts of offshore and onshore construction and operations on both the marine and the terrestrial environments. The publication contends that today in the Western Region, the multiple causes and consequences of ecosystem change are overshadowed by the prospect of oil and gas development. How the exploitation of this new source of wealth, employment and development pressures is managed is said to determine whether the result will be a new and generous source of national income with employment and business opportunities that benefit both the Western Region and the country as a whole, or yet another example of the curse of oil. Questions posed include the following: how will the jobs and the wealth produced be distributed? Will local Ghanaian companies be formed to provide the services required by new industries? Will the local labour force be trained to fill new employment opportunities or will skilled labour be imported and earnings flow overseas? Who will benefit and who will lose? The discovery of oil and gas and associated onshore infrastructure development will undoubtedly impact heavily on natural resources and especially local livelihoods. In addition to the above concerns, the mangrove environments and the delivery of services from them will be affected. How to get oil companies to pay for offsets and get involved in mangrove restoration and conservation remains a challenge. They need to be guided within a certain platform on mangrove ecosystem valuation information on what society will lose if the ecosystem services provided by the mangroves are lost, and they must pay costs for their replacement/restoration of these degraded ecosystems.

Institutional Issues and Governances of Wetlands and Potentials for a Coastal and Marine PES Scheme

Institutions and Stakeholders for Mangrove Management

The institutions and stakeholders in the management of mangrove forests in the Western Region of Ghana reflect a broad range of interests at the national, regional and local community level. The role played by each of these stakeholders has a direct or indirect impact on the resource.

At the apex of the stakeholder spectrum is the national government whose policies and programmes for management of mangroves and associated wetlands are implemented through the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission and other related agencies such as the Lands Commission and the Department of Town and Country Planning. At the regional level, there is the Regional Coordinating Council. The local level is represented by a number of players or interest groups whose actions or inactions determine the outcome of all mangrove management efforts now and in the foreseeable future. These include, among others, the district assemblies with their substructures, civil society groups, producer groups and trade associations, traditional authorities, commercial organizations and local communities around the mangrove forests. Stakeholders and institutional analysis from the policy to field levels are presented in Tables 5 and 6. In each tier, the major actors are identified, together with their roles and responsibilities, and an assessment of the current level of implementation is made with suggested strategies for implementation towards sustainable mangrove management.

Table 5 First-level institutional and stakeholder analysis for mangrove management
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Table 6 Second-level local institutional and stakeholder analysis for mangrove management
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The following general observations can be made:

  • First-level institutional and stakeholder analysis (central government, department agencies, regional administration, academic research institutions, local government and donor agencies).

    • Weak enforcement of existing legislation.

    • Good structures in place but severely limited by logistical capacity of government departments.

    • Lack of communication and information sharing to intended users.

    • Poor attitude towards mangrove and wetlands which is not taken into account in any development planning processes.

    • Donor funds that address short-term solutions to long-term problems with poor level of private sector participation.

  • Second-level institutional and stakeholder analysis (district assemblies, traditional authorities, local communities, NGOs and other civil society groups).

    • Ignorance of roles of wetlands that are taken for granted.

    • Land tenure conflicts.

    • Lack of long-term financing leading to periods of neglect in working with communities as less than 40 % of the mangrove sites have received any intervention (Table 1).

    • Lack of adequate knowledge and capacity for wetland management.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions

From this rapid assessment exercise, limited in time and by certain information gaps, the following conclusions can be drawn:

  • Types, distribution, values and status of mangroves and associated wetlands in the Amanzule region.

More than 1,000 ha of mostly estuarine mangrove forests exists in scattered pockets in the Amanzule area, representing about 10 % of national mangrove coverage with most of the mangroves not captured in the current vegetation maps of the area. These mangroves are generally healthy, supporting the livelihood and ecological securities of surrounding fishing or farming human population. There was a general perception by mangrove communities that these mangroves have decreased in area over the last 20 years with identified threats that include wood collection for fuelwood, charcoal and construction; pollution from wastes disposal, especially in around urban centres and mining activities; and mouth closure due to sedimentation that impedes the tidal flows that maintain mangrove ecological processes.

The total aboveground carbon stored in intact mangroves in the area is also important and can be comparable to similar mangrove systems.

The mangrove is currently valued for fuelwood use at 4,146 Ghana cedis (US$2,765) per ha with a significant impact on mangrove forest.

  • Institutional issues and governance of wetlands in the area. The various institutions and stakeholders at the national, regional and local community levels have varying interests which should be considered in any effort aimed at managing the wetlands in the area Feasibility of a PES scheme.

A PES scheme may be feasible when addressed within the context of the institutional and stakeholders in the region. The challenge is how to get the private sector, especially the oil companies, interested in investing in ecosystem services protection. Already, private tourism initiatives hold promise as some have started green investments. Oil and gas companies need to be guided within a certain platform on mangrove ecosystem valuation information on what society will lose if the ecosystem services provided by the mangroves are lost, and they must pay for their replacement/restoration.

Recommendations

Short-Term Recommendations

  • Addressing Stakeholders and Instructional Issues

    • Development of stakeholders contact database. All the groups working on mangroves need to be identified through the establishment of a database initiated by either themselves or a state institution like the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission.

    • Organization of an expanded stakeholder forum. In order to resolve conflict issues on mangrove and coastal resource management issues, an expanded forum of key stakeholders, preferably convened by the government with NGOs playing a facilitating role, is needed to identify and chart out a common vision and workable strategies for mangrove conservation within the general integrated coastal management discussion. The ongoing organization of the proposed coastal forum by Coastal Resources Center (CRC) could be a window opportunity.

    • Cross-institutional capacity building. Need to strengthen the operational capacities of governmental organizations by providing them basic logistics, especially transport, etc.

    • Sharing of research finding. Mechanisms should be developed to promote communication and sharing of research results either through forums or through any communication media.

    • Sensitization campaigns. Need for adequate sensitization campaigns to strengthen the awareness on the importance of mangroves, the threats affecting them and the need to conserve wetlands.

  • Completion of Ghana carbon map and mangrove carbon monitoring.

There is need to complete the current Ghana carbon map with the mangrove component using appropriate methodologies, especially those currently implemented within the central African mangrove forests with some establishment of long-term permanent sample plot system for measuring mangrove carbon sequestration and ecosystem dynamics under various human extraction regimes.

Medium- and Long-Term Recommendations

  • Addressing the direct on-site threats to mangrove ecosystem services is critically important in order to develop effective management/conservation policies and to lay the groundwork for innovative financing, including PES schemes.

  • A focus on areas for potential wet carbon benefits via avoided deforestation or the peat/swamp forests and restoration of mangroves (Table 7) could provide the necessary foundation for PES.

    Table 7 Site-targeted specific actions for wet carbon initiatives
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  • Conservation should be the focus in sites with significant peat/swamp forests, especially Ekumkpole and Amanzule, and significant healthy mangroves, especially Alengezule, Domunli, Kikam, Ankobra, Awhuele, Ezele, Butre, Ndabelah and Ampain.

  • Potential areas for restoration include the following:

    • Hydrological restoration with replanting. For sites with mouth closure due to sedimentation through channel opening to allow normal tidal exchange with mangrove areas or badly degraded sites especially Amanzule and Effasu.

    • Waste removal. Particularly for urban and peri-urban polluted sites that include Yan and Awine-anloa areas.

To capture the full range for such wet carbon initiatives, a specific targeted research agenda may be needed including getting reliable estimates of belowground carbon stocks, growth rates and carbon sequestration potentials of mangroves through laying out and periodically measuring permanent sample mangrove plots as ongoing in central African mangroves.

  • Policy review leading to reforms may be needed to revise existing laws with more research to enhance policies to encourage stakeholder communication, actual management and enforcement.

  • Sustainable funding through private sector participation should be encouraged and should constitute a main focus of mangrove conservation efforts. Donor partners should work with all partners to put in place sustainable funding mechanisms based on existing funding sources, especially to stimulate private sector investment.