The relative value of automation is debated. On one hand, it is lauded for making mundane work doable by machines. Not only can such machines carry out such work more efficiently than humans: the latter are then empowered and opened up to fulfill endeavors [57] (e.g., creative). Furthermore, automation can itself inspire innovations and the creation of work, such as in the creation of driverless vehicles (including software and hardware, as well as new regulatory practice). In an ideal scenario where work is fully automated, humans would be able to maximize leisure and not be bound by economic demands. Automation fits into a vision for societal AugCog where humans put machines to work so that the former can invest in more rewarding cognitive activities. Humans can do so by deepening their respective cultures with furthered devotion to art, philosophy, science, engineering, mathematics, humanities, politics, spirituality, and religion. In day-to-day life, automation can augment cognition via reduced stress and increased life satisfaction as people’s lives become more centered on relationships and meaning. Automation of work should proceed in a manner sensitive to overall economic and human impacts.
“An action…may be said to be conformable to the principle of utility…when the tendency it has to augment the happiness of the community is greater than any it has to diminish it” ([38], p. 2). -Jeremy Bentham, “Happiness is the Greatest Good”
1 Introduction
The term “automagically” arose as a portmanteau of automatic and magically, evoking how automation can render processes amazingly instantaneous. Every evening, or at least most evenings, adult Americans drive on the freeway. In Los Angeles, they can be confronted with digital billboards advertising businesses. While business is a staple in capitalistic life, automation is relatively newer.
Botlr is an example of automation in the hospitality industry. Not much larger than a child and with a black bow-tie, Botlr navigates a hotel on its own but will send an alert if it encounters an obstacle [1].Footnote 1 According to Steven Cousins, CEO of Savioke—the Silicon Valley company that created Botlr—“It’s not going to replace butlers, or be used in a kind of (hotel) brand where you have very high expectation of human interaction” [2]. An important consideration is how the automation of jobs has affected human interaction, especially the degree of relevance of communication (Fig. 1).Footnote 2
Fig. 1.
Wizard riding a rug. “Automating” is used as a verb that Zapier’s user could do.
Some benefits of automation are obvious. Namely, automating processes makes them more efficient and (in the long run) cost-effective. While automation appears to be on the rise, it is not without controversy: this state of affairs is comparable (and likely directly related to) artificial intelligence. A justification for furthering knowledge of automation is to transcend hype and speculation.
One example of a subject valuing automation in principle was found on LinkedIn, where an interviewee named Rizel described her “idea of the perfect [software] app”: “My perfect app is performant, with cleanly structured data that makes retrieval simple, and with well-written, readable code that makes it easy to navigate, understand, and troubleshoot. Beyond that, as long as automation [emphasis added] and a strong CI/CD pipeline are present, I’m happy” [43]. In Rizel’s answer, automation is directly tied to her potential happiness or product satisfaction. Automation is an important topic at both societal and individual levels (Fig. 2).
The following phenomena are now at least sometimes (if not often) automated:
phone calls and texts from businesses
grading submissions made by students
external defibrillators
pedestrian lights
The following processes are increasingly automatic:
collection of web use(r) information (e.g., demographics and types of browsers used)
login to online services
rendering clinical sessions
2 Future of Work
It is good to “automate tedious tasks” and “augment creativity” [47]. According to a survey, “AI scientific experts express more positive attitudes about AI technology related to improving the economy and health than other applications. The majority of them think that AI will improve individuals’ health (78.3% likely/very likely/certain) and strengthen the U.S. economy (72.6% likely/very likely/certain)” ([60], p. 2). In terms of A.I.’s riskiness, survey “respondents perceive[d] high likelihood of…AI displacing workers by automating their jobs (65.7% likely/very likely/certain).” [3] notes that “the market for personal and household service robots is already growing by about 20% annually” (p. 38). It distinguishes between low-, medium-, and high-risk professions with respect to replacement by computerization. The Millennium Project’s Future Work/Technology 2050 represents a highly collaborative global forecasting effort also interested in automation’s impact on the economy [4]. Future Work/Technology 2050 serves as an example of collective intelligence augmentation (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3.
Visual depiction of The Millennium Project’s Future of Work and Tech 2050 “three scenarios” project.
In work, prevention without incidence is ideal. Optimal pairing between company and client or human and computer are worthwhile ends. With respect to recruitment, the science of information spread seems to suggest that half of new jobs are not posted online [5].
Recent years have seen the rise of remote presentations, including of doctoral dissertations and conference articles. A worthwhile consideration is the possible loss of affect experienced during tasks one completes automatically. Psychological safety—a trending topic—is important for cybersecurity, as a soft topic augmenting a hard (albeit, largely virtual) area.
3 Education
Learning style is a function of Pc (here, processing) and regulation strategies, M (here, mental) models, and orientations. Learning styles are a function of undirected, reproduction, and application- and meaning-directed styles. It would be useful to formalize learning style(s) as such, especially for training autonomous machine learning a priori: also, of course, for humans. With this latter case, it should be kept in mind that learning styles lie on a continuum from shallow to deep (with undirected being shallowness, reproduction being next shallowest, and meaning-directed being deepest).
Autism as defined in the DSM-V within special education is alleviated—and thus, augmented—via HCI apps like Proloquo2Go and N2Y. While the former app augments the user’s communicative abilities, the latter informs them on a variety of topics ranging from purely educational (in the case of documentaries) to practical (e.g., daily living skills). Classes and courses have become increasingly virtualized.Footnote 3
Work bringing out the best in humans is optimal. Hard work—i.e., perseverance—pays off. Success in life is defined by voice actress Sarah Natochenny as being the product of perseverance and friendship [53]. There are many factors important to success, and differing ways to define success. With respect to human evolutionary and economic success, [6] notes that the species’ neurology invested into creating and processing comedy and art has been crucial, likely by enabling professional workers with distinct skillsets to cooperate (Fig. 4).
Attention paid in one domain can lead to insight and enacted wisdom in another. For instance, one could read the responses of others in a forum thread about relationships (in a VCoP like [7]), and have this translate into augmented performance at work. Related to this example, [31] teaches “strategies for building secure relationships in the remote and in person classroom.” A computer intervention led to reduced substance use (including cigarette-smoking) in college students [28].
4 Industry
In [14], it is asserted that the methodology Agile—which originated in part from software development—is concerned with project management, as well as with how humans operate. [14] also states that most digitally-enabled businesses will include the following as goals: flexibility, the perpetual desire to learn and improve, and speed. This source presages that human resources could vanish given automation (possibly even before, e.g., call centers). It also discusses the future work scenario of humans competing against automation.
DevOps is defined as referring to a broad inclusion of what were previously separate organizational functions, like testing and development, and how automation can transform an organization [28]. [14] crucially poses the questions of whether empathy can: augment work productivity and speed, and preclude automation from rendering workers obsolete. [14] notes that multiple businesses (with keenness and curiosity) found that their workers were more collaborative and open while online during the COVID-19 pandemic (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5.
“The Delivery of Medical Care” by Sidney R. Garfield ([44], p. 150).
According to [17]: “There are more than forty thousand different jobs in the United States, each having a unique title and description as well as responsibilities and requirements. There are many more job openings than there are job types.” [17] also discusses vocational psychology, as well as work and education.Footnote 4Footnote 5 Online job apps—especially for big tech—are discussed in ([8], p. 245).
Apps and computer accessory services provide useful automations. Rethink, a behavioral health app for data-recording, allows one to show a client’s skill acquisition progression as a percentage. The mouse-distributing company Logitech notifies users of automatic software updates: “Logitech may from time to time provide bug fixes, updates, upgrades and other modifications to the Software (‘Updates’). These may be automatically [emphasis added] installed without providing any additional notice or receiving any additional consent. You consent to these automatic Updates” [39] (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6.
O*NET Interest Profiler (computerized version). A computerized version of the Holland-type of occupational fit test is CIP, or Computerized Interest Profiler [12]. (Profiler accessed at [9]Footnote
O*NET has also been observed being used to prepare high school elective students in the K-12 special educational context for the workplace.
[21] advocates for a marriage between work skillset generalization and specialization. The combination of tech and professional coaching leads to a possible model for adapting and spreading evidence-based intervention [29]. Professional documents showing temporal data trends can be screen-shared through Zoom team meetings for all call participants to view and increase project understanding.
An example of augmenting cognition in the workplace is delivering a (behavioral) people styles presentation internally to a company, via PowerPoint and Zoom to augment said company’s understandings of themselves and their teammates. Hive-ish organizations in which team players thrive and transformational leadership are discussed in ([40], Ch. 10). Behavioral programming is even described as a React.js (JavaScript) paradigm, including “b-threads”, and event triggers (where events could be treated as behaviors B) [30].
[11] discusses e-commerce, and the “power of exponential growth”. It uses the law of compounding as illustrated by early dotcom-era profit. According to [26], “satisfaction of the basic needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness…predicted work engagement and well-being. Employees who reported greater need satisfaction on the job were more motivated and psychologically better adjusted” (p. 246). Team Zoom meeting calls can be ended insightfully with wisdom like, “Many hands make light work.” [35] advises:
“An organization is encouraged to provide an environment conducive to positive behavior, by understanding the psychology of employees and the demands placed upon them. For example, establish success metrics that are relevant and appropriate to the work environment; encourage focusing on one thing at a time rather than multitasking; offer opportunities for employees to destress; routinely monitor employee workloads to ensure that they are appropriate; and encourage employees to think through projects, actions, and statements before committing to them” (p. 133).
How one decides to earn main income has “to do with who [one is] at [one’s] core: [one’s] strengths, weaknesses, and central interests…. It is a matter of [one’s] core financial values” ([49], p. 19). In addition to discussing the knowledge asset and knowledge management system, [51] urges readers to have a “digital commonplace book”: i.e., a study notebook, journal, and idea sketchpad combined.
[48] yielded several insights into customer preferences, raising revenue, advertising (e.g., branding), and marketing. It found marketing via email to outperform social media in terms of sales. The report emphasizes providing customers with deep, empathetic personalization and a “consistent user experience” (p. 11). The report defines “relationship marketing” as having a focus on “delighting customers for the long haul” (p. 14). Consumer values include businesses offering superior products, customer service, accessibility, and options.
Women fighters in anime are reflective of women’s postmodern entrance into the workforce. Regarding behavioral economics (simply, but perhaps importantly): “The economy is the outcome of what we do” [54]. Advice has been read on a VCoP and implemented to build a strong work ethic. News relevant to forecasting futures of industry can be attained via sources like [52]. Amazon founder Jeff Bezos’ held a faithful belief in low prices to gain consumer trust [10], possibly explaining his company’s success more than any other singular factor (barring, perhaps, technological ingenuity and capacity). The basic flow of data visualization (in devoted programs like Power BI and the JavaScript framework d3.js, per [34]) is to load, format, and graphically represent data (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9.
Several allusions to automation on one webpage [56].
Having more capital makes an entity likelier to outcompete its competition [44]. Is reductionism—viz., task analysis—necessarily or only contingently productive? One can attempt to discover their job-related values by inquiring into whether work is meaningful or comfortable, leaves room for leisure, generates cash, empowers the worker, and grants prestige or security [46]. Reactive affect A can lead to suboptimal B data-recording.
It was written that if one has trust, they can monetize it flexibly [58]. The same source philosophized that: “The…aim of science is power”; it further estimated that A.I. will outwork humans in 30–40 years. Academia.edu user analytics yield insight into trending work and ResearchGate enables one to send automated messages to other users alongside requested research.
6 Productivity
Productivity equals output divided by input. It can be defined as a characteristic of creating something valuable. Efficiency equals quantity of output divided by time t (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10.
Example logo for the Peak Podcast on human transformation.
The “bounded automation perspective” emphasizes “how the networks and ambitions of power actors that craft technological development are based on calculated choices and vested interests to control labor, not simply to replace them with intelligent machines” ([63], p. 12). By this perspective, replacement by automation is not necessarily the goal. Instead, workforce control is prioritized (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11.
Handwritten flowchart of global work and technology scenario(s).
The software Trello can be used to facilitate collaborative e-workflow. One may learn about APIs (such as SOAP and RESTful) through participating in big tech job-screening. Automation of analytics tracking is often done for webpages using the Google Analytics service (Figs. 12 and 13).
In the film 21, the character named Terry is conversed with about his group’s loss of human work to facial recognition software. Google Docs Editors Suite products are the pinnacle of Web’s original purpose: facilitating collaboration. Slack and cloud sharing services like Google Drive can facilitate project management and workflow Footnote 7 (Fig. 14).
A computer network defense (CND) is “a joint human-machine collaborative task in which people depend on automated tools to perform their jobs but must remain in the loop as an information processor and decision maker” ([35], p. 107). Humans could outsource information-processing to their computers. Adaptive automation, which implicates user experience (UX), consists of “tools [that] can more effectively coordinate with users by providing the information users need at the time that they need” (p. 110) (Fig. 15).
Fig. 15.
Automation of end-to-end testing across various application programming interfaces (APIs).
[50] discusses leveraging “mobile technology to assist with clinical assessments, data collection, curricula development, billing and regulatory compliance increases clinician bandwidth while streamlining and improving operational efficiencies, and improving outcomes.” This could be considered a kind of “automated decision support” ([62], p. xvii). Automation augments cognition by freeing it to concentrate on a different task (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16.
Advertisement of batch record process automation (encountered on YouTube).
Downloads can start automatically, as can website redirections. Paperless workflow automation exists in industries such as law. The online marketplace for independent creators Etsy advertised a “fully automated dashboard” for project management, in the form of a Google Sheets-made template. In the role-playing game Guild Wars 2, automated game controls (such as for running and attacking enemies) are featured.
7 Current Directions
Logging in to various sites is often automated to the extent that one can do so using various social media accounts. In 2009, the company Velocity revolutionarily enabled automatic code deployment into production [27]. HCI at automated services like instant oil change (e.g., provided by Valvoline) and in automatic hybrid cars also exist.
ProgrammingFootnote 8 itself is semi-automated: “IDEs provide interfaces for users to write code, organize text groups, and automate [emphasis added] programming redundancies” [32].Footnote 9 ChatGPT [33] is an example of how writers (including of software) have increasingly automated their work. The company LUV Systems’ anti-viral fan augments cognition by allowing that underneath it to breathe more freely (e.g., while working in public spaces like Starbucks).
Computerized automation exists in car controls. Going farther back in time, cars came with two operative modes (and still do, but perhaps decreasingly): automatic versus shift. According to [15], “…knowledge in cognitive psychology…is sufficiently advanced to allow the analysis and improvement of common mental tasks, provided there is an understanding of how knowledge must be structured to be useful” (p. 91). Regarding psychology more broadly, [42] notes (Fig. 17):
“…a series of papers and special issues examining the details and ramifications of big data science [emphasis added] for the discipline of psychology have been published over the past 5 years in psychology journals…joining a broader community of scholars incognate disciplines (e.g., sociology, philosophy, science and technology studies [STS], and human–computer interaction [HCI]) committed to examining implications of the changes underway for the conception and practice of science…” (p. 11).
Fig. 17.
“Automated documentation” as part of an online service.
“A large-scale study of more than 12,000 employees across 12 countries…[showed] that fulfilling employee recognition is associated with better employee wellbeing across four key dimensions:
Increased overall life evaluations: Employees are as much as two times as likely to evaluate their lives and futures positively.
Reduced levels of burnout: Employees are up to 90% less likely to report being burned out at work ‘always’ or ‘very often.’
Improved daily emotions: Employees are up to two times as likely to report having experienced a lot of gratitude the previous day and about 40% less likely to report having experienced a lot of stress, worry and sadness.
Better social wellbeing: Employees are seven times as likely to strongly agree that they have meaningful connections or a best friend at work, and as much as 10 times as likely to strongly agree that they belong.”
[41] further found that when “organizations create an environment in which employees consistently receive high-quality recognition…[stronger life evaluation, lower burnout, higher-quality emotionality, and improved social well-being]—and more—translate into clear ROI. To do this, leaders must first see recognition as a strategy that needs to be invested in and then scale it thoughtfully to change the culture of their workplaces—and, ultimately, employees’ lives” (Fig. 18).
Fig. 18.
LinkedIn-sponsored advertisement of digital certification program.
Can the relevance of automated messaging (e.g., via LinkedIn members) be increased through more personalized, targeted content? VG livestreaming (via YouTube, Twitch, and Facebook) is a new profession. A cornerstone of DevOps is “automation of deployment into production without any human intervention or checkpoints” [27]. In the context of software architecture, test automation is complex, ideally having a framework that automates large system tests. Also, “Poké Jobs” (in Pokémon Sword) automate Pokémon stat-training and encourage the player to keep clients happy (Fig. 19).
Fig. 19.
The flow step “Install Automations” is included in the section, “New Way” [45].
“Alive Forever” [24] was an intriguing research project conducted at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB). The goal was to build participants’ avatars and allow them to have digital versions of their selves stored for posterity. The plan was to study reactions and how people were invested in digital “twins”, i.e., counterparts (Fig. 20).
Seligman wrote of a work progression starting with a job, leading over time to a career, and finally crystallizing into a calling [25]. [55] notes that: “Social entrepreneurs worldwide are organizing strategic networks to help address complex challenges. These networks offer key advantages over conventional, centralized organizations, including the ability to accelerate change by aligning and activating large numbers of people.” In terms of novelty, this chapter ends with the following pseudo-formula for artificial psychological intelligence:
$$ A.\Psi I. = M + A.O.P. + B + M.I. + I.Q. + E.Q. $$
(1)
where \(A.\Psi I.\) equals “artificial psychological intelligence”, M equals the Platonic-Freudian mind [61], A.O.P. equals agent-oriented programming (viz., SARL), B equals behavior and refers to data modeling (per recording and building, via apps like Rethink Behavioral Health), and M.I. equals multiple intelligences. I.Q. and E.Q. respectively refer to intelligence and emotional quotients.
A formula for artificial general intelligence (\(A.G.I.\)) incorporating (1) is now offered:
Across the web and discussions of work, automation is ubiquitous. According to [59]: “To augment is a continuous journey…. addressing these 5 challenges [relating to technology, diversity, resilience, skills, and authenticity] allows for the balance required for the successful integration of augmentation into our lives” (p. 3). Further, “building a foundation for augmentation means thinking about the organization as a whole and then finding use cases to run the new systems at the same time as keeping the traditional methods in place” (p. 7).
Notes
1.
[1] also discusses work ethic and working conditions.
2.
[20] is a journalistic book about interfacing with an organization’s developers. It covers SuperPhone, which purportedly “lets artists engage directly with their audiences…. SuperPhone lets…[the product’s creator] publish his phone number at concerts, on his website, and in his social media; when people call or text the number, Ryan adds them to his list of millions of fans” (p. 80). Also discussed is Breaker, “a seven-employee company that sells podcasting software” (p. 81).
See [18] for coverage of work assignment and -breakdown structures, and of architect skills.
5.
[14] outlines a humanistic vision of work in the tech industry. It covers remote working, automation, work/life balance, affect, “Ways of Working” (pp. 63–8), pace, flexibility, parents, the Psychological Safety Works Team Solution, flexible/remote working practices, the four-day work week (and work weeks, in general), software timetables (e.g., Sprints), Ways of Work (WOWs), and WFH (work from home).
6.
O*NET has also been observed being used to prepare high school elective students in the K-12 special educational context for the workplace.
7.
[36] covers automation extensively in the cybersecurity context. Specific topics include adaptive automation, human-automation teaming components, the Automatic Certificate Management Environment (ACME), and the Automation-Induced Complacency Potential Rating Scale.
8.
Workflow is covered in [16]. Asana is another workflow augmentation software that allows for automated emailing and collaborator-tagging. This brings to light the phenomenon of hearing email mentally as one reads it. Also, analysis of workflow charts as structured systems that should be easily searchable, describable, and transparent to viewers is discussed.
9.
[23] is a worthwhile compilation of interviews with programming language creators. It covers productivity, teams, and programmer efficacy, as well as specialization of labor for programming. Innovation is a theme in the book, and even mathematical theorem work is discussed (p. 474).
10.
Python [13] has been used to program bots and the power-to-take game.
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