Keywords

1 Introduction

Plants are being utilized as medicines for thousands of years all over the globe and are a source of many potent and powerful drugs. Traditional medicine has become more popular in the treatment of many diseases due to belief that these are safe, easily available, and with fewer side effects. At least 80% of the population of developing countries depend on plant drugs for their primary healthcare needs (Farnsworth et al., 1985). Medicinal plants are vital components and play a significant role in the healthcare of rural people all over the world. The use of traditional medicine and medicinal plants in most developing countries, as a normative basis for the maintenance of good health, has been widely observed (Reddy et al., 2019). There are many traditional systems of medicine associated with their own different philosophies and cultural origins. The herbal medicines / traditional medicaments have been derived from rich traditions of ancient civilizations and scientific heritage. The earliest recorded evidence of their use in Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Syrian texts dates back to about 5000 years. The classical Indian texts including Rig-Veda, Charaka Samhita, and Sushruta Samhita are the evidences for these age-old traditions (Kamboj, 2000).

The Eastern Ghats have a diverse and rich source of threatened medicinal and aromatic group of plants used in drugs, pharmaceutical, and perfumery industries. In the modern era, though synthetic chemicals are contributing appreciably in the pharmaceutical application, the plant-based drugs remain vital source of modern medicine. The spurt in demand of the raw material in world trade has caused large-scale collection of the naturally occurring populations, thus threatening the very existence of these irreplaceable gene pools. The quantity gathered from natural habitats is so large that even protected areas are no longer safe, despite notification from the Government time to time. Even the ban on ruthless collection of medicinal plants/species has not improved the frequency of their distribution. For example, Eastern Ghats region has lost large populations of several medicinal plants in the past, viz., Rauvolfia serpentina, Commiphora wightii, Chlorophytum tuberosum, Dioscorea deltoidea, etc. Threatened medicinal plants are used in various indigenous systems of medicine such as Siddha, Ayurveda, Amchi, Unani, and even in allopathy, with pharmaceutical industries depending on plants for preparation of the medicines. Herbal drugs or medicinal plants, their extracts, and their isolated compounds have demonstrated a wide spectrum of biological activities. Such natural medicines have been used and continue to be used as medicine or as food supplements for various disorders as described in various texts and folklore. Safe, effective, and inexpensive indigenous remedies are currently gaining popularity among the people of both the urban and rural areas in India. Plant-based ethnic and traditional knowledge systems have become a recognized tool in search of drugs and pharmaceuticals (Reddy et al., 2019). An attempt has been made to review the conservation strategies, traditional knowledge systems of threatened medicinal plants prevailing in Eastern Ghats of India.

2 Eastern Ghats

The Eastern Ghats, one of the major hill ranges of India, located between 77022′ and 85020′ E and 11030′ and 21000’ N, form an assembly of discontinuous ranges, hills, plateaus, escarpments, and narrow basins and spread in an area of about 75,000 km2. The Eastern Ghats stretching from Odisha, Chhattisgarh, through Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka are endowed with a large number of biological species, geological formations, and indigenous tribal groups (Fig. 2.1). For Eastern Ghats, the Mahanadi basin marks the northern boundary, while the southern boundary lies in the Nilgiri hills. The tips of Bastar, Telangana, Karnataka plateaus, and Tamil Nadu uplands form the boundary in the West, while the coastal belt forms the boundary in the East.

Fig. 2.1
figure 1

Location map of Eastern Ghats, India. (Courtesy: Dr Sudhakar Reddy, NRSC, Hyderabad)

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The Eastern Ghats region is inhabited by nearly 54 tribal communities, which constitute nearly 30% of total population (Chauhan, 1998). The major tribes in the Eastern Ghats are Arondhan, Irular, Kota, Kotanayakam, Kurmar, Puniyan, Pulayan, Sholaga and Tuda, and Malayali in the southern region; Bagata, Chenchu, Gadaba, Jatapu, Kammara, Kondadora, Konda Kapu, Konda Reddy, Kandha, Kotiobenthu Oriya, Koya/Goud, Kulia, Mali, Mukadora, Mannedora, Nayaka, Paraja, Reddidora, Savara, Valmiki, Yenadi, and Yerukala in central region; and Bathudi, Birjhal, Bhuiyan, Dhuma, Bhumis, Bhuttada, Gond, Khana, Kisan, Kolba, Munda, Oraon, Soarha, and Sounti in the northern region. The variations in altitude and climatic conditions, especially in rainfall, have immensely contributed to the evolution of rich ethnic floristic diversity in the Eastern Ghats. This region is very rich in terms of natural wealth, which is manifested, in its greatest biological diversity. Out of 2500 species of flowering plants belonging to angiosperms, gymnosperms, and pteridophytes known to occur in Eastern Ghats, about 77 species (67 dicots, 9 monocots and 1 gymnosperms) are endemic.

3 Status of Medicinal Plant Genetic Resources in Eastern Ghats

The rich and diverse heritage of traditional indigenous medicinal and aromatic plants in Eastern Ghats is threatened due to various abiotic and biotic stresses coupled with the technological advancement. With increasing interest in herbal medicines worldwide, conservation of medicinal plants in Eastern Ghats has assumed considerable importance. The Eastern Ghats are endowed with rich floristic diversity consisting of more than 2000 species of plants including medicinal plant species (1800) belonging to angiosperms, gymnosperms, and pteridophytes. Eastern Ghats vegetation includes 454 endemic species belonging to 243 genera and 78 families (Reddy et al., 2002a, b). At least 788 medicinal plant taxa and 40 aromatic plants are concentrated in this area which are used in various medicinal systems including codified and folklore which belong to 132 families and 384 genera. The dominant medicinal plant families in the Eastern Ghats are Leguminosae (67 spp.), Apocynaceae (29 spp.), Malvaceae (26 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (25 spp.), Orchidaceae (22 spp.), Solanaceae and Rubiaceae (16 spp. each), Asteraceae (15 spp.), Acanthaceae, Asteraceae and Lamiaceae (14 spp. each), Cucurbitaceae and Zingiberaceae (13 spp. each), Rutaceae (12 spp.), and Araceae (10 spp.). These medicinal plant genetic resources are distributed in various vegetation types in the Eastern Ghats region (Table 2.1). A total of 560 tree taxa fewer than 262 genera belonging to 80 families are reported to occur in the Eastern Ghats (Rani and Pullaiah, 2002). Dye yielding plants occurring in the southern most point of Eastern Ghats is recorded (Krishnamurthy et al., 2002). The Eastern Ghats region is being exploited in an unregulated manner for this natural wealth. Several published floras by eminent botanists from the region are available on Eastern Ghats such as H.H. Haines, J.S. Gamble, C.E.C. Fischer, C.A.Barber, C.H. Beddome, T. Spring, J.L.Ellis, K.M. Matthew, R.S.Rao, G. Rao, B. Suryanarayana, T. Pullaiah, H.F. Mooney, etc., and changes in plant biodiversity pattern of the region were also a subject of review recently (Pandravada et al., 2004). Genera such as Anaphalis, Bulbophyllum, Callicarpa, Clematis, Debregeasia, Delphinium, Dillenia, Ensete, Eulophia, Exacum, Lobelia, Mallotus, Meliosma, Mucuna, Pimpinella, Prunus, Raphidophora, Sapium, Saussurea, Syzygium, Tinospora, Vanilla, and Viburnum present in the Eastern Ghats are common to the Himalayas, Khasi, and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya and the Western Ghats (Reddy et al., 2002a, b; Sahu and Dhal, 2012; Sivaraj et al., 2015). Cycas beddomei, Cycas circinalis, and Gnetum scandens and about 30 species of ferns including Cyathea gigantea, a tree fern, are also distributed in this region. The following are the red list categories which are applicable to threatened medicinal plant taxa of Eastern Ghats region :

  • Critically endangered (CR) – in a particularly and extremely critical state (e.g., Rauvolfia serpentina, Litsea glutinosa, Cycas beddomei, etc.)

  • Endangered (EN) – very high risk of extinction in the wild, meets IUCN criteria for endangered (A-E) (e.g., Homalium zeylanicum, Butea monosperma, Rhynchosia heynei, Tephrosia calophylla, Saraca asoca, Entada rheedii, Plumbago indica, Strychnos colubrina, Ceropegia spiralis, Decalepis hamiltonii, Plectranthus barbatus, Piper nigrum, Santalum album, Vanilla wightiana, Acorus calamus, etc.)

  • Vulnerable (Vu) – meets one of the five red list criteria and thus considered to be at high risk of unnatural (human-caused) extinction without further human intervention (e.g., Hildegardia populifolia, Sterculia urens, Aegle marmelos, Rubia cordifolia, Gymnema sylvestre, Oroxylum indicum, Euphorbia fusiformis, Phyllanthus indofischeri, Stemona tuberosa, Gloriosa superba, etc.).

Table 2.1 Predominant medicinal taxa including threatened species occurring in different vegetation types of Eastern Ghats
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Detailed threatened category of medicinal plants of Eastern Ghats, species, and family wise are provided in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Threatened medicinal plant families of Eastern Ghats
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4 Traditional Knowledge on Threatened Medicinal Plant Systems

Ethnobotanical knowledge from the Eastern Ghats region has been recorded by several workers (Saxena and Dutta, 1975; Banerjee, 1977; Reddy, 1980; Rao and Harasreeramulu, 1985; Thammanna and Rao, 1998; Ravisankar and Henry 1992; Goud and Pullaiah, 1996; Rao and Henry, 1996; Vedavathy et al., 1997; Pandravada and Sivaraj, 1999; Pandravada et al., 2000, 2006; Pullaiah, 2002; Rao and Reddi 2002; Reddy et al., 2002a, b; Basha and Sudarsanam, 2010, Dikshit and Sivaraj, 2014). The tribes living in the Eastern Ghats depend mostly on various forest products, but their careless collection resulted in much damage to the forest wealth particularly rare and endangered medicinal plant species. Many tribal communities are practicing their local health traditional methods using medicinal herbs to cure various ailments. Their understanding of the medicinal flora around them and related indigenous knowledge systems are transmitted through successive generations and practiced as a part of their tradition and culture. Medical practices of local and indigenous people have remained unchanged over long periods of time. In the face of increasing industrialization and modernization, the knowledge base of local health traditions has begun to erode. Acacia catechu, Acacia concinna, Cassia auriculata, Cassia fistula, Cassia javanica, Cassia senna, Ceratonia siliqua, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Mucuna pruriens, Psoralea corylifolia, and Pueraria tuberosa are some of the medicinal legumes, and Caesalpinia and Indigofera are some of the dye yielding plants from Eastern Ghats in India. Legumes used for treating various ailments of the body, i.e., ear, nose, throat, and eyes (ophthalmic, odontalgic, sternutatory); chest and lungs (antiasthmatic, demulcent, expectorant); heart and blood (cardiac, blood purifier, vasodilator); liver and kidneys (hepatic, antbilious); stomach (emetic, stomachic, digestive); bowels and bladder (purgative, laxative, carminative); nerves and muscles (antispasmodic, nervine); bones (anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic); skin, hands, and feet (acrid, skin applications); sex and reproduction (abortifacient, aphrodisiac, galactogogue); wounds and bruises (antiseptic, poultice, vulnerary); fever (febrifuge); infectious diseases (antiperiodic, VD); bites and stings (antidote, stings); cancer (cancer); and fungi and bacteria (antibacterial, antifungal) are reviewed and reported earlier (Pandravada et al., 2006; Varaprasad et al., 2006).

The Malayali tribes of the Southern Eastern Ghats region are using 189 plant species belonging to 86 families for the treatment of 85 diseases (Suresh, 2010). Tribals of Rayalaseema region of Eastern Ghats are using about 54 plant species belonging to 50 genera and 34 families for treating asthma alone (Anjaneyulu and Sudarsanam, 2013). The tribal areas of Rayalaseema have reported about 70 medicinal plant species for gynecological and abortive properties (Nagalakshmi, 2001). Eastern Ghats of Odisha has a potential ethnomedicinal resource for treating various human diseases particularly rheumatism for about 62 genera with 78 plant species including Acanthus ilicifolius, Thunbergia fragrans, Cerbera odollam, Guizotia abyssinica, Derris scandens, Flacourtia indica, Pandanus fascicularis, Sesamum indicum, and Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Panda et al., 2014). Some of the major Eastern Ghats ethnic groups and their traditional healthcare knowledge systems on threatened medicinal plant taxa are presented in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Ethnic groups and traditional healthcare knowledge systems in Eastern Ghats
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5 Medicinal Plant Wealth in Traditional Health Practices

Eastern Ghats tribal communities use threatened medicinal plants for treating various ailments. The medicinal plant taxa used in local health traditions are enlisted further (disease wise).

5.1 Abortifacients

Abrus precatorius , Acacia leucophloea, Lawsonia inermis, Gloriosa superb, Sterculia urens, Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia, Ricinus communis, Aristolochia bracteolate, Plumbago zeylanica, Plumbago indica, Holoptelea integrifolia, Dolichos biflorus, Plumbago rosea, Rhynchosia beddomei

5.2 Antidote for Poisonous Bites (Snakes, Scorpion)

Boswellia ovalifoliolata , Pimpinella tirupatiensis, Habenaria roxburghii, Gymnema sylvestre, Rauvolfia serpentine, Vernonia cinerea, Aristolochia indica, Cassia glauca, Asparagus racemosus, Hemidesmus indicus, Cissampelos pareira, Corallocarpus epigaeus, Strychnos nux-vomica, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Acalypha indica, Leucas aspera, L. cephalotes, Uraria picta, Symphorema polyandrum, Celastrus paniculatus, Tinospora cordifolia, Soymida febrifuga, Dalbergia paniculata, Sapindus emarginatus, Cleistanthus collinus, Butea monosperma, Ziziphus xylopyrus, etc. are for poisonous snake bites. Santalum album, Canavalia virosa, Strychnos potatorum, Ziziphus mauritiana, Cassia auriculata, Tridax procumbens, Martynia annua, Andrographis paniculata, Leucas cephalotes, Aegle marmelos, Leonotis nepetifolia, Geodorum candidum, Rauvolfia serpentine, Soymida febrifuga, Clerodendrum serratum, Calotropis gigantea, Boswellia serrata, etc. are used for scorpion sting .

5.3 Antifertility (Contraceptives)

Achyranthes aspera , Aristolochia bracteolata, Mitragyna parvifolia, Allium sativum, Embelia tsjeriam-cottam, Cuminium cyminum, Schleichera oleosa, Plumbago zeylanica, Piper nigrum, Zingiber officinale, Capsicum annuum, Argyreia nervosa, Abrus precatorius, Aristolochia indica, Tamarindus indica, Salvadora persica, Ricinus communis, Crotalaria juncea, Phyllanthus amarus, Momordica dioica, Saccharum officinarum, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Dodonaea viscosa, Nymphaea nouchali, Strychnos nux-vomica, Butea monosperma, Balanites aegyptiaca

5.4 Aphrodisiacs and Nervine

Curculigo orchioides , Hybanthus suffruticosus, Clitoria ternatea, Decaschistia cuddapahensis, Maerua oblongifolia, Ipomoea mauritiana, Bombax ceiba, Hemidesmus indicus, Cuminum cyminum, Mucuna pruriens

5.5 Arthritis, Body Pains, and Fits

Dichrostachys cinerea , Azima tetracantha, Barleria prionitis, Lawsonia inermis, Limonia acidissima, Derris indica, Moringa concanensis, Sterculia urens, Cassia tora, Capparis sepiaria, Dregea volubilis, Ailanthus excels, Celosia argentea, Terminalia arjuna, Delonix alata, Ficus religiosa, Erythrina indica, Vitex negundo, Plecospermum spinosa, Diplocyclos palmate, Albizia lebbeck, Semecarpus anacardium, Dodonaea viscosa, Cassytha filiformis, Atalantia monophylla, Atylosia scarabaeoides, Alstonia scholaris, Leonotis nepetifolia, Hemidesmus indicus, Aristolochia indica, Derris indica, Butea monosperma, Trianthema portulacastrum, Boerhavia diffusa, Acalypha indica, Elytraria acaulis, Cryptolepis buchanani, Decalepis hamiltonii, Erythrina suberosa, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Mimosa rubicaulis, Zingiber roseum, Bacopa monnieri, Gossypium herbaceum, Bridelia retusa, Garuga pinnata, Phyllanthus emblica, Gardenia turgid, Holoptelea integrifolia, Cassia occidentalis, Morinda tomentosa, Clerodendrum phlomidis .

5.6 Child Care

Acorus calamus , Cryptolepis buchanani, Pterocarpus marsupium, Holostemma ada-kodien, Emilia sonchifolia, Oxalis corniculata, Helicteres isora, Sida acuta, Dichrostachys cinerea, Phyla nodiflora, Mukia maderaspatana, Casearia elliptica, Aegle marmelos, Cucurbita maxima, Citrus aurantifolia, Curcuma longa, Chloroxylon swietenia, Terminalia bellerica, Aristolochia indica, Aristolochia bracteolata, Ximenia americana, Blepharispermum subsessile, Gymnema sylvestre, Argemone mexicana, Tridax procumbens, Cynodon dactylon, Ailanthus excelsa, Pavonia odorata, Ziziphus xylopyrus, Blumea eriantha, Ziziphus rugosa, Lepidagathis hamiltoniana, Lepidagathis cristata, Hygrophila auriculata, Tamarix ericoides, Borassus flabellifer

5.7 Cough and Cold

Leucas aspera , Hemionitis arifolia, Abrus precatorius, Euphorbia tirucalli, Pergularia daemia, Trachyspermum ammi, Solanum surattense, Azanza lampas, Acacia torta, Acacia caesia, Leucas linifolia, Leucas aspera, Leucas cephalotes, Phyla nodiflora, Ficus racemosa, Ficus benghalensis, Cardiospermum halicacabum, Cadaba fruticosa, Coccinia grandis, Pergularia daemia, Solanum nigrum, Leucas aspera, Barleria prionitis, Elephantopus scaber, Vanda tessellate, Rhynchostylis retusa, Sesamum indicum, Strychnos nux-vomica, Tinospora cordifolia

5.8 Diabetes

Rauvolfia serpentina , Aegle marmelos, Gymnema sylvestre, Strychnos potatorum, Acacia chundra, Syzygium cumini, Azadirachta indica, Flacourtia indica, Coccinia grandis, Barleria prionitis, Leucas linifolia, Pterocarpus santalinus.

5.9 Diarrhea and Dysentery

Lantana camara var. aculeata , Holoptelea integrifolia, Desmodium gangeticum, Grewia hirusta, Diospyros exsculpta, Brassica juncea, Abrus precatorius, Anogeissus acuminata, Cassia auriculata, Cassia holosericea, Justicia glauca, Lannea coromandelica, Euphorbia prostrata, Helicteres isora, Psidium guajava, Carmona retusa, Terminalia pallida, Terminalia chebula, Anisomeles indica, Cassia auriculata, Solanum erianthum, Maytenus emarginata, Tectona grandis, Triumfetta rhomboidea, Cyanotis tuberos, Zanthoxylum rhetsa

5.10 Dysmenorrhea

Andrographis paniculata , Coccinia grandis, Soymida febrifuga, Momordica charantia, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Citrullus colocynthis, Cardiospermum canescens, Capparis sepiaria, Musa paradisiaca, Citrus aurantifolia, Pergularia daemia, Semecarpus anacardium, Butea monosperma, Sphaeranthus indicus, Arachis hypogaea, Haldina cordifolia, Sesamum indicum, Maytenus emarginata, Cassia auriculata, Cuminum cyminum, Sorghum vulgare, Eclipta alba, Elettaria cardamomum, Curcuma longa, Momordica dioica, Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia, Phaseolus radiates, Erythrina suberosa, Ougeinia oojeinensis, Butea monosperma, Atylosia scarabaeoides, Sida cordifolia, Soymida febrifuga, Eriolaena hookeriana, Securinega leucopyrus, Cassia auriculata

5.11 Epilepsy

Solanum indicum, Helianthus annuus, Gardenia turgida, Maytenus emarginata, Hemidesmus indicus, Brassica nigra, Chloroxylon swietenia, Holoptelea integrifolia, Vitex negundo, Cassia occidentalis, Acalypha indica , etc.

5.12 Eye Diseases

Curculigo orchioides, Ocimum americanum, Carmona retusa, Chloroxylon swietenia, Phyllanthus amarus, Cassia occidentalis, Soymida febrifuga, Achyranthes aspera, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Careya arborea, Strychnos potatorum, Tinospora sinensis, Cassia absus, Ziziphus mauritiana, Achyranthes aspera, Argemone mexicana, Eclipta alba, Aloe barbadensis, Gymnema sylvestre , etc.

5.13 Facial Paralysis

Flacourtia indica , Capparis sepiaria, Dichrostachys cinerea, Gmelina arborea, Capsicum annuum, Holoptelea integrifolia, etc.

5.14 Fertility-Promoting Plants

Maerua oblongifolia, Ferula asafoetida , Grewia tenax, Ficus religiosa, Terminalia bellirica, Smilax zeylanica, Tectona grandis

5.15 Heart Disorders

Pterocarpus santalinus , Atalantia monophylla, Sida acuta, Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia alata, Cardiospermum halicacabum, Mitragyna parvifolia, etc.

5.16 Hepatic Disorders

Phyllanthus amarus , Lagenaria siceraria, Ficus hispida, Luffa acutangula var. amara, Trachyspermum ammi, Andrographis paniculata, Azadirachta indica, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Cordia dichotoma, Benincasa hispida, Cassia tora, Curcuma angustifolia, Diospyros montana, Lawsonia inermis, Oroxylum indicum, Curcuma longa, Phyllanthus amarus, Solanum nigrum, Ricinus communis, Boerhavia diffusa, Leucas linifolia, Leucas aspera, Leucas cephalotes, Cassia occidentalis, Papaver somniferum, Eclipta alba, Acalypha indica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Butea monosperma

6 Immunity Modulators

Aegle marmelos , Ailanthus excelsa, Albizia lebbeck, Andrographis paniculata, Asparagus racemosus, Atalantia monophylla, Azima tetracantha, Capparis sepiaria, Clerodendrum phlomidis, Dichrostachys cinerea, Gmelina arborea, Hemidesmus indicus, Hesperethusa crenulata, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Moringa oleifera, Oroxylum indicum, Plumbago zeylanica, Pterocarpus marsupium, Solanum surattense, Soymida febrifuga, Stereospermum suaveolens, Terminalia chebula, Tinospora cordifolia, etc.

6.1 Leucorrhea

Hibiscus micranthus , Cassytha filiformis, Ficus racemosa, Mangifera indica, Syzygium cumini, Cassia occidentalis, Curcuma longa, Argemone mexicana, Aerva lanata, Cuminum cyminum, Bombax ceiba, Vernonia anthelmintica, Terminalia bellirica, Tephrosia purpurea, Sida acuta, Abrus precatorius, Derris indica, Mimosa pudica, Erythrina indica, Cuminum cyminum

6.2 Malaria and Other Fevers

Andrographis paniculata , Cissampelos pareira, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Soymida febrifuga, Vitex peduncularis, Terminalia alata, Ailanthus excels, Mimosa pudica, Paederia foetida, Cleome pentaphylla, Flacourtia indica, Aristolochia indica, Rauvolfia serpentina, Evolvulus alsinoides, Aganosma caryophyllata, Aerva lanata, Malaxis rheedii

6.3 Miscarriage of Pregnancy

Vernonia cinerea , mimosa pudica, Achyranthes aspera, Eclipta alba, Ocimum sanctum, Caesalpinia bonduc, and other species

6.4 Menorrhagia

Bauhinia racemosa , Prosopis cineraria, Canavalia virosa, Hemidesmus indicus, Hemidesmus indicus, Lepidagathis hamiltoniana, Abelmoschus ficulneus, Terminalia alata, Argemone mexicana

6.5 Mother Care

Acacia catechu , Butea monosperma, Allium sativum, Zingiber officinale, Capsicum annuum, Cuminum cyminum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Acacia catechu, Acacia chundra, Hesperethusa crenulata, Holoptelea integrifolia, Chloroxylon swietenia, Alangium salviifolium, Oroxylum indicum, Cassia occidentalis, Asparagus racemosus, Dillenia pentagyna, Piper longum, Salvadora persica, Dichrostachys cinerea, Brassica nigra, Symphorema involucratum, Canthium parviflorum, Trachyspermum ammi, Derris indica, Holoptelea integrifolia, Mundulea sericea, Mollugo pentaphylla, Ixora arborea, Tectona grandis, Oryza sativa, Raagi java, Eleusine coracana, Sorghum vulgare, Achyranthes aspera , etc.

6.6 Paralysis

Smilax zeylanica, Azima tetracantha, Symphorema involucratum, Derris indica, etc.

6.7 Respiratory Disorders

Boswellia serrata , Dolichandrone falcata, Strychnos potatorum, Tridax procumbens, Strychnos nux-vomica, Ocimum sanctum, Trachyspermum ammi, Achyranthes aspera, Capparis zeylanica, Andrographis paniculata, Anisochilus carnosus, Vernonia anthelmintica, Semecarpus anacardium, Euphorbia thymifolia, Barringtonia acutangula, Aegle marmelos, Anogeissus latifolia, Pergularia daemia, Leucas aspera, Ocimum sanctum, Borassus flabellifer, Evolvulus alsinoides, Dendrocalamus strictus, Echinops echinatus, Solanum surattense, Acalypha indica, Plumbago zeylanica, Solanum trilobatum, Cissus quadrangularis, Ziziphus oenoplia, Euphorbia hirta, Calotropis gigantea, Echinops echinatus, Albizia lebbeck, Alangium salviifolium, Leucas cephalotes, Helicteres isora, Mitragyna parvifolia, Derris indica, Terminalia arjuna, Pterocarpus marsupium, Cassia occidentalis, Aristida adscensionis

6.8 Skin Diseases

Albizia thompsonii , Nervilia aragoana, Paederia foetida, Grewia rhamnifolia, Urginea indica, Urginea raogibikei, Urginea nagarjunae, Elytraria acaulis, Opuntia dilleni, Holoptelea integrifolia, Cissus pallida, Ventilago calyculata, Ximenia americana, Boswellia seretta, Premna tomentosa, Ochna squarrosa, Ziziphus mauritiana, Eleusine coracana, Ailanthus excelsa, Tamarindus indica, Alangium salviifolium, Phyllanthus emblica, Argemone mexicana, Moringa oleifera, Albizia amara, Hyptis suaveolens, Annona squamosa, Terminalia chebula, Anisochilus carnosus, Coldenia procumbens, Commiphora caudata, Colocasia esculenta, Piper longum, Ficus hispida, Urginea nagarjunae, Solanum melongena, Holoptelea integrifolia, Ocimum americanum, Dendrocalamus strictus, Madhuca longifolia, Barleria prionitis, Rubia cordifolia, Trichosanthes tricuspidata, Terminalia arjuna, Pterocarpus santalinus, Mundulea sericea, Nerium indicum, Hesperethusa crenulata, Santalum album .

6.9 Viral, Bacterial, and Fungal Attacks

Lygodium flexuosum , Curcuma longa, Abrus precatorius, Mimosa pudica, Solanum surattense, Xanthium strumarium, Adiantum lunulatum, Chenopodium anthelminticum, Aristolochia indica, Barringtonia acutangula, Schleichera oleosa, Hemidesmus indicus, Solanum indicum, Azadirachta indica, Commiphora mukul, Brassica juncea, Acorus calamus, Achyranthes aspera, Brassica juncea, Acorus calamus, Calotropis gigantea, Leucas aspera, Albizia lebbeck, Morinda tomentosa, Gardenia gummifera, Gardenia resinifera, Clerodendrum viscosum, Solanum giganteum, Polycarpaea corymbosa, Selaginella rupestris, Adiantum incisum

The detailed treatise on Eastern Ghats tribal medicine for various ailments and vast recipes is provided by Hemadri (2011).

7 Conservation Strategies for Threatened Medicinal Plants

The conservation of threatened medicinal plant genetic resources involves two basic strategies: (i) in situ and (ii) ex situ (Fig. 2.2). In situ conservation of medicinal plant taxa has to be carried out in original forest habitats where threatened medicinal plants occur naturally. Ex situ conservation requires collection and systematic storage of seeds/propagules outside the natural habitats of species for short, medium, and long term after proper characterization and evaluation. Threatened medicinal plant taxa under ex situ conservation in the country are to be characterized and evaluated in a phased manner. Storage of medicinal plant parts at an ultralow temperature, such as that of liquid nitrogen (−196 °C) termed cryopreservation, is one of the promising approaches being pursued to achieve prolonged preservation of medicinal plant genetic resources.

Fig. 2.2
figure 2

Conservation strategies for threatened medicinal plants

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Conservation programs are being implemented in Eastern Ghats region at three levels, viz., genotypes, species, and ecosystems. In situ conservation of wild flora through protection of habitats and ecosystems is being implemented by the Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change. Fourteen biosphere reserves have been identified on the basis of survey data and have already been made operational in India. Concerted efforts were made for conservation of threatened medicinal plant taxa in India and particularly in Eastern Ghats region. Endemicity and usefulness leading to overexploitation are essentially two reasons for a medicinal plant species to come under threat. Apart from this, rapid change in land use pattern has resulted in degradation of specialized natural habitats and along with it rapid depletion of medicinal plants restricted to these habitats. Specialized habitats and threatened plants undeniably deserve exceptional concern for conservation and sustained monitoring in Eastern Ghats region of the country. Collaboration, coordination, and harmonization among institutions and also among naturalists, plant taxonomists, forest and protected area managers, and volunteers possibly give the essential support to realize this objective. Ex situ conservation of genetic variability of medicinal plants is the sole responsibility of the CSIR-CIMAP and ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) that operates under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). The Indian National Genebank (NGB) was established at ICAR-NBPGR to conserve the PGR including medicinal plant taxa for posterity in the form of seeds, vegetative propagules, in vitro cultures, budwoods, embryos/embryonic axes, genomic resources, and pollen. The NGB has four kinds of facilities, namely, seed genebank (−18 °C), cryogenebank (−170 °C to −196 °C), in vitro genebank (25 °C), and field genebank, to cater to long-term as well as medium-term conservation. Numerous botanical gardens managed by the Botanical Survey of India and several other organizations help in ex situ conservation of endangered, threatened, and rare plant species.

The seed material of different seed-bearing orthodox medicinal plant species collected is stored at −20 °C with seed moisture brought down to 5–8% and RH being maintained at 25–32% in the National Genebank at NBPGR. In some difficult species, which are recalcitrant, pollen and seed material is stored at -180 °C in liquid nitrogen in the cryotanks at ICAR-NBPGR.

For medium-term conservation, the seed material is stored at 7 °C with the seed moisture brought down to 5–8% and RH being maintained at 30–35% in the cold storage modules at NBPGR Regional Station, Hyderabad. The medicinal plant species, which are non-seed bearing, and those that are multiplied by vegetative means (stem cuttings/root cuttings/whole plant) are being maintained in the glass house/field genebank at NBPGR Regional Station, Hyderabad, in live condition.

Regional Stations of the ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) located at Cuttack and Hyderabad have made extensive exploration surveys and collected about 1800 accessions of medicinal and aromatic plant species from Eastern Ghats region, and the same has been documented. Some of the endangered/endemic medicinal plants collected include Acorus calamus, Aegle marmelos, Costus speciosus, Cycas bedomei, Gloriosa superba, Gymnema sylvestre, Mucuna pruriens, Plumbago indica, Rauvolfia serpentina, and Withania somnifera. Collections of dye-yielding plants include Bixa orellana and Mallotus philippensis, while collections of aromatic plants include Artemisia spp., Cymbopogon spp., Ocimum spp., Vetiveria zizanioides, etc.

Genomic resources of threatened medicinal plant diversity such as cloning vectors, expression vectors, binary vectors, RFLP probes, cloned genes, promoters fused to reporter genes, subgenomic, cDNA, EST, repeat enriched libraries, BAC, YAC, PAC clone set from sequencing projects, genomic, mitochondrial or chloroplast DNA, and cloned DNA from wild medicinal plant species produced exclusively for the repository can be stored in the repository by the following storage methodologies:

  • 1–2 years at 4 °C, 4–7 years at −20 °C, and greater than 5 years when stored at −70 °C

  • ESTs, full-length cDNAs, BACs, PACs, and YACs, maintained in 96-well or 384-well micro plates at −80 °C

  • cDNA clones as plasmid DNA at −20 °C

  • Lyophilized DNA for long-term storage

  • Ambient temperature storage

To effectively plan a conservation program especially for in situ approaches, the occurrence/ passport data enlisted will be useful in delineating species-rich areas, in general, and diversity-rich pockets, in particular, in the surveyed region. The Medicinal Plants Conservation Center (MPCC), Hyderabad, created eight medicinal plant conservation areas in the Eastern Ghats region of Andhra Pradesh, and a total of 715 medicinal plant species have been identified and conserved in these areas (Jadhav and Reddy, 2002). Based on the deliberations during the Conservation Assessment Management Plan (CAMP) workshop organized by the MPCC in 2001, the threat status for some of the medicinal plant species of this region has been assessed. Concerted and collaborative efforts are highly warranted for sustainable management of threatened medicinal plant wealth in the Eastern Ghats.

8 Conclusion and Way Forward

Eastern Ghats are endowed with a rich diversity of medicinal plant species. The ever-increasing growth of global and national herbal-based healthcare and wellness sector is putting enormous pressure on the available medicinal plant resources of this region. It has given rise to concerns about the conservation and sustainable utilization of threatened medicinal plants. Some of the threatened medicinal plant species of Eastern Ghats are in high commercial demand. It calls for active management plans so as to ensure proper conservation strategies of medicinal plant genetic resources and sustained supply of authentic and quality herbal products. Local healthcare traditions, evolved since ancient times, draw heavily from the available plant genetic resources of Eastern Ghats region which are thus increasingly becoming threatened. Conservation of threatened medicinal plant resources is significantly assuming a very high priority. The following are some of the action points for effective conservation of threatened medicinal plant genetic resources:

  • Management of Eastern Ghats genetic resources: Priority management interventions are required on threatened species with a long-term national program on in situ conservation, development, and sustainable utilization of threatened medicinal plant resources of Eastern Ghats.

  • Urgent need to strengthen ex situ collections in genebanks, botanical gardens, arboretum, and herbal gardens through systematic germplasm surveys for threatened medicinal plant germplasm collection, characterization, and documentation.

  • Networking and coordination of efforts of stakeholders/organizations engaged in medicinal plant conservation are warranted toward focused output for conservation of valuable genetic resources of Eastern Ghats.

  • Standardization of protocols for cryopreservation and in vitro conservation of threatened medicinal plant resources of Eastern Ghats.

  • Consolidated inventory of threatened medicinal plant genetic resources of Eastern Ghats needs to be prepared, and their commercial demand needs to be worked out.

  • Complex state-wise regulatory regimes are to be made uniform for sustainable utilization (collection, cultivation, transport, and trade) of medicinal plant genetic resources of Eastern Ghats.

  • Capacity building of local communities/stakeholders on awareness of threatened medicinal resource conservation needs to be encouraged.