Endemic Aromatic Medicinal Plants in the Holy Land Vicinity

Abstract

The Holy Land has a long history of settlement by many different nations, cultures and religions, as well as a long tradition of using plants for culinary, medicinal and liturgical purposes. This chapter describes a selected list of promising local Medicinal Aromatic Plants (MAP) from this region. The focus is on the most important native MAP and on their potential as new cultivated modern crops. The large climatic variations of this region, present in a relatively small area, create a wide range of natural habitats and high biodiversity of wild plants. Due to the geographical location of this area, which is in the meeting of four phyto-geographical regions, there is a rich diversity of herbaceous plants. Part of the common MAP in the Holy Land vicinity are endemic to this area, such as Micromeria fruticosa, Origanum dayi, O. ramonense, O. syriacumvar syriacum, Chiliadenus iphionoides and Salvia domenica. The rest are local ecotypes of a wider dispersion area, such as Salvia fruticosa, Artemisia judaica, Achillea fragrantissima, Asteriscus graveolens, Coridothymus capitatus, Foeniculum vulgare and Mentha longifolia. Cultivation of medicinal plants that were traditionally collected from the wild is necessary both for protection of plant species in their native habitats, and as a response to the increased demand for uniform high-quality sources of medicinal herbs.

Introduction

Medicinal plants, growing in the vicinity of the holy land, were traditionally used throughout history and many of them are mentioned in the scriptural sources (Duke 2007). The area traditionally considered to be the Holy Land of the Bible, is defined as the area from the mountains of Lebanon and Syria in the north, to the eastern banks of the Jordan River, to the northern reaches of the Sinai Peninsula in the south. Ethno-botanical surveys, conducted in recent years indicate that many of the traditional plants are still used in folk medicine today (Aburjai et al. 2007; Ali-Shtayeh et al. 2000; Dafni et al. 1984; Palevitch and Yaniv 2000; Lev and Amar 2000, 2002). Most of the plants are not common in the Western world today and are not cultivated in large scale, if at all. However, there is a great potential for future development of new crops and new products, mainly by domestication and breeding of selected unique local traditional Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAP). The great climatic variations in this region, in a relatively small area, create a wide range of natural habitats and high biodiversity of wild plants. Due to the geographical location of the Holy Land in the heart of the Levant, which is in the meeting area of four phyto-geographical regions, (Mediterranean, Irano-turanian, Saudi Arabian and Sudanian) there is a rich diversity of herbaceous plants. Mt. Hermon is in the north, where it snows in the winter. On this mountain, species such as Nepeta italica L., Nepeta cilicia Boiss, Nepeta glomerata Bentham, and Trachonitica can be found. Only 300–400 km away, in the desert region, we can find desert plants such as Artemisia judaica, A. sieberi, Origanum dayi, O. ramonense, Achillea fragrantissima, Chiliadenus iphionoides and A. santolina (Amzallag et al. 2005; Dudai et al. 2003; Putievsky et al. 1992, 1997; Tamir et al. 2011; Yaniv et al. 2011; Friedjung et al. 2013). In this chapter we describe a selected list of some interesting local medicinal species of this vicinity. We will focus on endemic aromatic plants and their potential as new cultivated crops.

Domestication and Breeding – Adapting the Traditional Former Glory to Modern Times

The increasing demand by industry for uniform and high-quality raw material, along with modern developments, results in the situation where fewer and fewer people still collect plants from the wild. In addition, some of the wild plant species are protected and as a result, not available. These facts have necessitated the cultivation of various species. This shortage of raw material has encouraged seed companies, researchers and farmers to select cultivars which could substitute for the raw material that once came from the wild. Therefore, the approach of the MAP research and development today is to develop modern agricultural methods for traditional crops. Most of them used to be collected by people in the wild, like oregano in Turkey and Greece or za’atar (Origanum syriacum) in Israel (Dudai 2012). The goal is the domestication of plants and the development of optimal growth methods for modern industry in order to replace traditional methods.

The challenge of domestication of wild plants includes the need to acclimatize plants outside of their native region. For instance, although land distances in Israel are short, the variability and changeability of climate makes this type of plant domestication all the more difficult. Desert plants from the Negev, native to an arid climate, were acclimatized to a Mediterranean climate in the north of Israel. Moreover, when considering domestication of foreign wild plants such as Origanum vulgare (Putievsky et al. 1997) and Salvia officinalis (Putievsky et al. 1986b), the process should be accompanied by introduction, acclimation, and selection of suitable varieties to the local conditions.

The danger of extinction and the need for domestication has promoted the collection and conservation of plants in all their natural biodiversity. This important activity has been done in the last few years by Gene Banks in various countries (Heywood 2002). These collections can serve as a base for selection by screening of various traits, such as desirable natural products, bio-activity or adaptation of cultural practices (Dudai 2012).

Wild Aromatic Medicinal Plants as Potential New Crops

Part of the common aromatic plants in the Holy Land vicinity are endemic to this area, such as Micromeria fruticosa, Origanum dayi, O. ramonense, O. syriacum ve syriacum, Chiliadenus iphionoides and Salvia domenica. The rest are local ecotypes of a wider dispersion area. A selected list of the main common traditional plants and their references is given in Table 1.

Table 1 Selected list of the most common local aromatic medicinal species in the wild

The following species were chosen as the most promising endemic plants to be developed as new crops.

Origanum spp.

The genus Origanum (Lamiaceae) is divided into ten sections: Amaracus Bentham, Anatolicon Bentham, Brevifilamentum Ietswaart, Longitubus Ietswaart, Chilocalyx Ietswaart, Majorana Bentham, Campanulaticalyx Ietswaart, Elongatispica Ietswaart, Origanum Ietswaart, Prolaticorolla Ietswaart, and contains about 20 species (Ietswaart 1980). Origanum species are perennials herbs, the majority of them are distributed over the Mediterranean (Kokkini 1997). The culinary and medicinal herbs contain mainly carvacrol and/or thymol (“Oregano”), or terpinene-4-ol, linalool, and sabinene hydrate (“Marjoram”) (Kokkini 1997). In the Holy Land vicinity there are 7 known endemic Origanum species, some of them belong of the unique section: Campanulaticalyx.

Syrian marjoram

Origanum syriacum is one of the main important native plants in the Holy Land vicinity. Syrian marjoram is an aromatic perennial herb in the mint family, Lamiaceae. The local common name of this plant is “Za’atar” or “Ezov matzuy”. This herb is a very important one for the local population, with a long history of traditional uses. This herb was identified as the biblical hyssop which is mentioned in the bible as a medicinal and antiseptic plant (Fleisher and Fleisher 1988), and fits today as a part of the trend of “natural products” and “functional food” (Dudai 2008).

Description

The Syrian marjoram undergoes dramatic morphological variation during the year, probably as a mechanism of adaptation for the extreme seasonal climatic changes in its dispersion area: During the winter and spring upright thick stems bear large (1–3 cm long) and soft leaves. In the summer these foliage abscise, while new small leathery leaves are expressed on thin prostrate stems. The flowering starts in the beginning of May. Full bloom is observed in the beginning of June. About 50 days later (end of July) most of the inflorescences dry up and abscise. New flowers are produced sporadically during the summer and early autumn. The last flowers appear in September (Dudai et al. 1989, 1992).

Classification

In the past Syrian marjoram was defined as Majorana syriaca (Labiatae). In the revision of Ietswaart (1980) it is classified as a species of the genus Origanum, and belongs to the section Majorana, named Origanum syriacum. In the Middle East there are three varieties of this species: O. syriacum var syriacum O. syriacum var bevanii (mainly in Turkey and Syria) (Lukas et al. 2009) and O. syriacum var sinaicum (in Egypt) (Başer et al. 2003).

Origin and Distribution

Majorana syriacum is endemic to the Middle East in Mediterranean maquis and forest, Batha, Phrygana, hard rock outcrops, mainly in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Jordan and the Sinai Desert (Feinbrun-Dothan 1978; Ietswaart 1980).

Folk Medicine

The word ezov refers in the Bible to a plant tied into branches and used as a brush to sprinkle blood on the doorposts and lintels when the house was cleansed against leprosy (Leviticus 14:4), as well as for purposes of worship: “And a clean person shall take hyssop and dip it in the water and sprinkle it upon the tent, and upon all the vessels, and upon the persons that were there, and upon who touched a bone, or one slain, or one dead, or a grave” (Numbers 19:6) (Zohary 1982). Due to its association with cleaning, the hyssop plant was thought to possess powers of spiritual purification: “purge me with hyssop and I shall be pure: wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow” (Psalms 51, 7). At the same time it was supposed to exemplify the stunted discredited plants that grow out of walls: “From the cedar tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall” (I Kings 4:33), although it is actually a handsome plant, tall, and does not sprout on walls (Zohary 1982).

The identity of the Biblical ezov with O. syriacum is confirmed by a Samaritan custom whereby Origanum is traditionally used by Samaritans to sprinkle the blood of the Passover sacrifice. The hair on the stems is said to prevent coagulation of the blood (Zohary 1982).

The Syrian marjoram is known as a remedy for intestinal worms since Jesus’ time (Palevitch and Yaniv 2000). Today, among Israeli Arabs, a tea is prepared from the leaves to relieve colds and stomach aches. Syrup prepared by scalding Syrian marjoram leaves is known as a remedy for several diseases, in the folk medicine of the Middle-East.

The Yemenite Jews use an infusion of hyssop to relieve labor pains, and use it in combination with sage and various aromatic leaves to reduce the pain of heart diseases, headaches and earache.

The plant is believed to promote verbal dexterity and can act as a charm against witchcraft.

An ethnobotanocal survey conducted in Israel revealed the following ethnic uses of Syrian marjoram (Dafni et al. 1984).

• 1. To relieve toothaches: Green leaves are crushed and placed on the aching tooth.

• 2. To treat gum infections: Dried leaves are crushed with salt and rubbed on the inflamed area.

• 3. To strengthen heart function: Tea is prepared with honey.

• 4. To treat infections of the digestive tract and urinary system: decoction is prepared and 2–4 spoons are taken daily.

• 5. To treat colds: tea is prepared.

• 6. To clear worms: An extract is made from leaves in olive oil, left for 2 weeks in the sun, the oil is absorbed in sugar lumps and 1–3 spoon are taken twice daily.

Biological Activities

The high quantities of carvacrol and thymol in oregano spp. oil, are responsible for its potent biological properties such as antioxidant (Yanishlieva et al. 1999), antibacterial (Ultee et al. 2002; Si et al. 2006; Esen et al. 2007), fungicide (Muller-Riebau et al. 1995), insecticide (Cetin et al. 2007), herbicide (Dudai et al. 1999b) and nematicide activities (Oka et al. 2000).

Many diverse activities of carvacrol, such as antimicrobial, antitumor, antimutagenic, antigenotoxic, analgesic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, angiogenic, antiparasitic, antiplatelet, ache inhibitory, antielastase, insecticidal, antihepatotoxic and hepatoprotective activities have been described (Baser 2008). In addition, uses such as a feed additive, in honeybee breeding and in gastrointestinal ailments have been shown.

Major Chemical Constituents and Bioactive Compounds

O. syriacum essential oil is primarily comprised of the phenolic monoterpenes carvacrol and thymol (Lukas et al. 2009). Usually there are two identified chemotypes: one contains mainly carvacrol (60–80 %) and a small amount of thymol; whereas the other contains mainly thymol and little carvacrol (Dudai et al. 1989). There is a huge seasonal variation in the essential oil content and composition: The essential oil content of plants harvested in February is only one-fifth of that in plants harvested in August. Their composition also varies significantly within the season; whereas during most of the Summer the main component of a thymol chemotype is thymol, in the Winter the thymol content falls to only 36 %, and p-cymene becomes the main component of the essential oil. The carvacrol chemotype shows a similar trend (Dudai et al. 1992). In addition, it contains other important phenolic compounds such as thumoquinon (0.04–23.7 % DW) (Lukas et al. 2009), oleanolic acid (0.15–1.2 % DW), ursolic acid (0.5–2.5 % DW) and rosmarinic acid (0.2–2.0 % DW) (Dudai 2012).

Development as a New Cultivated Crop

Lately, due to the danger of extinction as a result of the excess collection in the wild, O. syriacum has become a “protected species” by law, so its domestication for agricultural production becomes necessary. A project of domestication and breeding in Israel has been conducted over the last 30 years (Dudai 2012). First, vegetative propagation materials of O. syriacum were systematically collected to represent their natural diversity, and are grown in experimental fields under intensive conditions. The genetic variability of the essential oil content and compositions, as well as other ingredients such as ursolic acid and rosmarinic acid in various clones of the representative populations, grown in uniform conditions, was very high. The selection process yielded new high quality and uniform commercial varieties (Fig. 1). Two clones were registered as cultivars: “Carmel” (a carvacrol type) and “Tavor” (a thymol type) (Dudai 2012). Study of the factors affecting the yield components (Dudai et al. 1992) and a series of field agro-technical experiments were necessary to optimize the cultivation of the new crop in the various areas. Agronomic aspects studied included search of selective herbicides, the effect of fertilization, irrigation, and harvest regime and plant height on yield components during at least 2 years of growth. Most of the experiments were carried out with different clones in order to find the best treatments for each of the expected ones to be used for commercial purposes (Putievsky et al. 1997).

Fig. 1

Origanum syriacum population in the wild (a) and a domesticated variety in an commercial open field in Israel (b) (Dudai, unpublished data)

Other Endemic Origanum Species as Potential New Crops

In addition to O. syriacum, six species, Campanulaticalyx (Ietswaart 1980) are distributed in the limited desert area in Southern Israel, Jordan and Sinai (Egypt) O. dayi (Dudai et al. 2003; Amzallag et al. 2005; Friedjung et al. 2013), O. remonense (Danin et al. 1997), O. jordanicum (Danin and Künne 1996), O. petraeum, O. punonense (Danin 1990) and O. isthmicum (Danin and Künne 1996). Table 2 represents the main components of the essential oils extracted from dry material of the various species. O. petraeum O. punonense, O. dayi (Fig. 2) and O. ramonenese (Fig. 2), containing substantial amounts of α-terpineol and terpinen-4-ol, belong to the “marjoram” culinary type, while O. isthmicum and O. jordanicum, belonging to “oregano” type, contain mainly carvacrol derivatives.

Table 2 Volatile composition of Origanum spp. of Campanulaticalyx section collected in Israel and Jordan^a

The common “oregano” (Origaum vulgare or other species used for this spice) is not native to the Holy Land vicinity, but was introduced to Israel due to its popularity in the world, together with some other Mediterranean herbs. The selection process yielded a few clonal cultivars which have been used for the production of dry or fresh herbs for export (Basker and Putievsky 1978; Putievsky et al. 1988, 1997). Recently, interspecific cross breeding yielded some interesting hybrids of O. vulgare × O. syriacum (Fig. 2), which are used for further breeding (Dudai, unpublished data).

Fig. 2

Three endemic Origanum species to the Holy Land vicinity and a hybrid (O. vulgare × O. Syriacum) obtained by cross breeding in Israel. The pictures were taken in the Aromatic Plants Living Germplasm collection at the Newe Ya’ar Research Center, Israel (Dudai, unpublished data)

Salvia spp.

The genus Salvia (Lamiaceae) includes more than 1,000 species (Alizar 1993; Rivera et al. 1994; Tucker et al. 1995). Salvia species are either herbaceous or shrubby perennials and many of them are used as herbs or ornamentals and garden plants (Clebsch and Barner 2003).

Greek Sage (Salvia fruticosa, syn. S. triloba)

Salvia fruticosa is a common native herb and very popular which is growing in wide areas in the Holy land vicinity and the Mediterranean regions. Salvia is an aromatic perennial herb in the mint family, Lamiaceae (Rivera et al. 1994). It is known as having a few local common name, depending on the region and the language, such as: Mariamia, Marmaria, Joa’sas, Shijeri (Arabic) and Marva – Meshuleshet (Hebrew).

There are many legends revolving this plant in the folklore of the region. There is a story about Mary, mother of Jesus, who, while fleeing to Egypt to escape Herod, with her son in her arms, wiped her face with sage leaves to refresh herself and her son in the oppressive heat. From this legend the Arabic name, “mariamiah” – “the blessed one” is derived. The Latin name: “Salvia” is a contraction of the Latin word Salvameaning “to rescue”.

The three-lobed sage is now a protected plant, due to excessive gathering from the wild by healers and users. (Palevitch and Yaniv 2000).

Description

Salvia fruticosa is an evergreen shrub growing up to 1 m height. The unique leaf with three main parts (Fig. 3) is probably the reason of the former name tri (three) loba (lobes or leaves). The stems are upright and hairy, the flower color is lilac. Flowering starts in February–March. Anthesis and seed maturation continue until the end of June (Putievsky and Ravid 1984; Putievsky et al. 1986a).

Fig. 3

Sage “Newe Ya’ar”: an Inter-specific hybrid (Dudai et al. 1999a) of local Israeli S. fruticosa with introduced Dalmatian sage

Folk Medicine

In ancient Greece a tea prepared from leaves of the plant was believed to purify the blood and impart a feeling of well-being.

The Yemenite Jews use the plant to relieve earache. Tunisian Jews use it to ease stomach ache, and the Jews of Morocco use it as a diuretic medication.

In the traditions of the Arabs in this region sage is used mainly to treat colds and disorders of the digestive system, including stomach ache, diarrhea, indigestion and flatulence (Dafni et al. 1984).

In Lebanon a water infusion of the leaves is used as a cure for liver diseases. Herbal healers in the Middle East recommend using sage to regulate menstruation, to enhance fertility, to strengthen the muscles of the womb before and after childbirth, and to treat problems associated with menopause. Sage helps opening the respiratory canals, and eases catarrh and sore throats. A gargle prepared from an infusion of sage leaves is used to treat coughs and painful gums.

Sage is attributed with the virtue of prolonging life, in both Arabic and European folklore.

In an ethnobotanical survey, conducted among the Arabs in Israel, the following uses were found to be the most popular (Dafni et al. 1984)

• 1. To treat mouth sores: fresh leaves are chewed.

• 2. To cure external sores: fresh leaves are placed on the sore.

• 3. To accelerate wound healing: dried crushed leaves are spread on the wound.

• 4. To treat colds: a vapor bath is prepared with sage leaves. The vapor is inhaled.

• 5. To relive aching joints and rectal pains: Sit over a vapor bath containing sage leaves.

Biological Activities and Modern Medicine

Thujones are some of the essential-oil components of S. fruticosa. They are known to depress the central nervous system, counter the activity of various poisons, and induce hallucinations. The use of large dosages of thujones is liable to induce side effects such as convulsions and loss of consciousness. However, using the plant according to tradition is usually safe.

The essential oil also contains phenols, which are active against microbes (Palevitch and Yaniv 2000 and human fungi (Adam et al. 1998).

The effect of extracts obtained from selected Salvia species was tested against oxidative and alkylation damage to DNA in human HCT15 and CO115 cells. Data showed that sage tea protected colon cells against oxidative and alkylating DNA damage and may also interfere with efficacy of alkylating agents used in cancer therapy (Ramos et al. 2012).

Antiproliferative activity of crude ethanol extracts from nine Salvia species grown in Jordan was studied against a panel of breast cancer cell lines.

Cytotoxic activity was evaluated in human tumor models of breast cancer; MCF-7, T47D, ZR-75-1, and BT 474 by the sulforhodamine B assay. In addition, the extracts were evaluated using a non-transformed cell line (Vero) and normal fibroblast cells in order to demonstrate their selectivity and safety (Abu-Dahab et al. 2012).

The results show that three of the plant extracts under investigation exhibited antiproliferative activity against breast cancer cells and were shown to be safe and selective. They are: S. fruticosa, S. hormium and S. syriaca. These could be considered as a potential source for novel anticancer therapy (Abu-Dahab et al. 2012).

Major Chemical Constituents and Bioactive Compounds

While the main components of the essential oil of S. fruticosa in Europe are 1, 8 cineol, thujone and camphor (Máthé et al. 2010), thujones were not reported as a significant component in plants sampled from wild populations in Israel (Putievsky and Ravid 1984). Antioxidant activity and phenolic antioxidants such as rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and carnosic acid in S. fruticosa were also reported (Máthé et al. 2010; Pizzale et al. 2002; Skoula et al. 2000).

Development as a New Cultivated Crop

Domestication and selection of S. fruticosa were studied in Israel in the 1980s (Putievsky and Ravid 1984), but any wide scale cultivation of this crop today does not exist. However, the main benefit of this work was obtained by interspecific hybridization with the European common Sage species (Putievsky et al. 1990). Crossing of S. officinalis, introduced to Israel from Dalmatia, (Putievsky et al. 1986b; Zutic et al. 2003) with local S. fruticosa (Putievsky et al. 1986a) yielded a new commercial cultivar of sage (Fig. 3) (Dudai et al. 1999a). This cultivar has aroma and appearance similar to those of S. officinalis (Dudai 2012) but grows in the Israeli Winter and Spring as well as the local S. fruticosa, and today it is the main cultivar grown for the fresh herbs market (Dudai et al. 1999a; Dudai 2012).

Salvia dominica

S. dominica is an endemic species to the Holy Land vicinity. Its local common names are Chuecha in Arabic and Marva Reichanit in Hebrew (Dafni et al. 1984). The aroma of its leaves, stems and inflorescences is strong and very similar to that of S. sclarea (Werker et al. 1985b).

Description

Salvia dominica is an evergreen shrub growing up to 0.8 m height. The stems are upright and hairy, the flower color is white. The flowering starts in February–March. Anthesis and seed maturation continue until the end of May. The trichoms are very similar to those of S. sclarea (Werker et al. 1985b).

Major Chemical Constituents and Bioactive Compounds

The essential oil content in leaves and flowers of S dominica is 0.2–0.3 %. The main components of the essential oil are (−) linalyl acetate, lonalool, trpineol, neryl acetate, geranyl acetate geraniol and nerol (Ravid and Putievsky 1985a; Ravid et al. 1994).

Folk Medicine

S. dominica is used to relieve pains, by means of poultices made of crushed leaves, placed on the painful limb. Sweet gall nuts of a peach-like taste develop on the stems of this plant. The local inhabitants are very fond of them. They are called: “little peach” (Palevitch and Yaniv 2000).

Biological Activity

Khalil et al. (2005) reported on anti-microbial activity of crude extract of S. dominica against stapylococus aureu, but not against other tested pathogenic bacteria. S. dominica extracts also showed cytotoxic and antiproliferative activity on choriocarcinoma, endometrium adenocarcinoma, B lymphoblast (Fiore et al. 2006) and breast adenocarcinoma (Abu-Dahab and Afifi 2007) tumor cell lines. Dal Piaz et al. (2009) identified 24 sesterterpene lactones isolated from S. dominica, 18 of them interact with tubulin − tyrosine ligase, an enzyme involved in the tyrosination cycle of the C-terminal of tubulin, and inhibit its activity in cancer cells.

A weak nematocidal activity was found in the essential oil components against root-kinot nematodes (Oka et al. 2000).

Clary Sage

A new and unique chemotype of clary sage, Salvia sclarea L., was identified recently in wild populations of this species in the northern part of Israel (Elnir et al. 1991a).

This chemotype contains relatively high citral, geranyl- acetate and geraniol, while the major essential-oil components of the common clary sage in the world are linalool and linalyl-acetete. Comparison of the new chemotype with a Russian type showed a great difference in composition and organoleptic character between the two oils. The relative quantity of most components of hybrid oils was intermediate between those of the parent plants (Elnir et al. 1991b).

White Micromeria

(Micromeria fruticosa (L.). Druce. Lamiaceae is a perennial herb found in Northern and central Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Turkey. Thanks to its nice minty aroma, this is a popular herb, used for tea consumption, giving a feeling of coolness during the typical hot summer in the area. Its local common names are Zuta Levana in Hebrew and Zofa or Ishbat Al Shay in Arabic.

Description

White Micromeria is a dwarf- shrub growing up to 0.2–0.8 m height. The plant spreads vegetatively mainly at the end of winter and spring. The flowering starts in July and continues until November. The flower color is white (Dudai et al. 2001).

Major Chemical Constituents and Bioactive Compounds

The major component of the white micromeria is enantiomerically pure (+)-pulegone (Ravid et al. 1994). In addition to (+)-pulegone, major components of the essential oil are other monoterpenes such as isomenthol, isomenthone, limonene, menthol, α-pinene, β-pinene, piperitone, piperitenone oxide and the sesquiterpenes b-caryophyllene and germacrene. (Werker et al. 1985a; Fleisher and Fleisher 1991; Dudai et al. 2001; Kirimer et al. 1993). Dudai et al. (2001) found a significant seasonal variation in the essential oil composition: During the summer months, when growth rates are maximal, (+)-pulegone constituted up to 80 % of the essential oil, while in early winter, a period of growth-rest in Mediterranean climates, (+)-pulegone levels dropped dramatically to a few percent, while isomenthol constituted up to 80 % of the essential oil. Additionally, in this study there were marked differences in the extracts obtained from individual leaf along the stems: In young upper leaves, the main component was (+)-pulegone, constituting up to 70 % of the total essential oil extracted. During maturation, levels of this component dropped steadily, while reciprocally, levels of isomenthol increased steadily with leaf position, from 0 % in young leaves to more than 60 % in older leaves (Dudai et al. 2001).

Folk Medicine

Tea made of leaves is used to ease breathing of people suffering from colds and also to relieve stomach aches. In Nazareth they prepare an infusion of the leaves to relieve heart pains (Palevitch and Yaniv 2000). The aerial parts of M. fruticosa are widely used in the eastern Mediterranean region as medicinal teas, to treat many ailments including abdominal pains, diarrhea, eye infections, heart disorders, high blood pressure, weariness, exhaustion, colds and open wounds (Yaniv et al. 1982; Dafni et al. 1984).

Biological Activity

Evaluation of the allelochemical properties of white micromeria essential oils and its main component (+)-pulegone has demonstrated strong inhibition of seed germination and plant development (Dudai et al. 1999b, 2000, 2009). Pulegone and pulegone-derived lactones have anti-feedant, antibacterial, antifungal and insecticide activity (Szczepanik et al. 2005; Zielińska and Matkowski 2014).

Pulegone is also known as toxic, mainly hepato- and neurotoxicity (Moorthy et al. 1989). Nevertheless, De Sousa et al. (2011) reported that (+)–pulegone is a psychoactive compound and has the profile of an analgesic drug, it exhibited antinociceptive activity against chemically induced pain in mice, as well as CNS-depressing and anticonvulsant effects (de Sousa et al. 2011).

Sharp Varthemia

Chiliadenus (syn. Varthemia) iphionoides (Boiss. et Blanche) Brullo is a member of the Composites. C. iphionoides is an aromatic plant whose aerial parts were used in the traditional medicine of the eastern Mediterranean region, and is endemic to the Holy Land vicinity. Its local common names are Salimania in Arabic and Ktela Harifa in Hebrew.

Description

C. iphionoides is an evergreen dwarf shrub with small leaves covered with hairs and glands containing essential oil which gives the plant its unique aroma (Feinbrun-Dothan 1978). All the flowers are tubular. The flowering season is from September to December.

Classification

Chiliadenus iphionoides (Boiss. et Blanche) Brullo (syn. Varthemia iphionoides Boiss. et Blanche and Jasonia iphionoides (Boiss. & Blanche) Botsch), a member of the Asteraceae family, tribe Inuleae.

Origin and Distribution

It is found throughout most of Israel, from Mount Hermon to the southern Negev, as well as in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Sinai (Greuter 2008), (Danin 1983).

Folk Medicine

Sharp varthemia is traditionally used for anti-diabetic treatment (Al-Mustafa and Al-Thunibat 2008). In an ethno-botanical survey, conducted among the Arabs in Israel, the following uses were found to be the most popular (Dafni et al. 1984)

• 1. To relieve headaches and stomach aches, and to clear flatulence: an infusion is prepared. Also fresh leaves are chewed.

• 2. To treat eye complaints: soaked leaves are placed on the eye.

• 3. To treat sick babies: The baby is washed in boiled leaves, and then covered to sweat.

• 4. To treat urine retention: Drink a water infusion of crushed leaves.

• 5. To relieve internal and external bodily pains: A steam bath is prepared from leaves.

• 6. To dress wounds: Fresh or dried leaves are placed on the wound.

The Yemenite Jews use sharp vartemia leaves mixed with honey to strengthen their heart and brain, as well as their mental power. They use the leaves cooked in water to relieve melancholia and nervousness, and to treat coughs and mild colds (Palevitch and Yaniv 2000). In traditional eastern Mediterranean medicine, C. iphionoides is used to treat influenza, fever, stomach ache, depression and nervousness (Palevitch and Yaniv 1991).

Biological Activity

Various studies demonstrated cytotoxic, anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial activities (Al-Dabbas et al. 2006; Al-Mustafa and Al-Thunibat 2008), anti-diabetic (Gorelick et al. 2011) and hypoglycemic activity (Afifi et al. 1997). Al-Dabbas et al. (2005) isolated eudesmane sesquiterpene with antibacterial activity.

T-cadinol, found in one chemotype, has muscle relaxing activity, possibly due to its calcium antagonistic properties (Zygmunt et al. 1993), and may be useful in immunotherapy (Takei et al. 2006).

Intermedeol has therapeutic potential for treatment human leukemia (Jeong et al. 2002), as well as repelling activity against mosquitoes (Cantrell et al. 2005), ticks (Soares et al. 2010), and ants (Chen et al. 2008).

Major Chemical Constituents and Bioactive Compounds

Avato et al. (2004) described the composition of C. iphionoides’s essential oil in a plant sampletaken from the Jordan Valley in Jordan, with borneol as the main compound of this essential oil. Other major compounds were 1, 8-Cineole, α-Terpinol, Camphor, Bornyl formate, Terpinen-4-ol and Bornyl acetate (Tamir et al. 2011). Even though several similar compounds were found, mostly mono-terpens, these populations were rich in Intermedeol (not found in the Jordanian oil), Chrysanthemic acid and τ- Cadinol. In contrast to the Jordanian population, seven primary compounds were found in the essential oil of Israeli populations: Borneol, Camphor, 1,8-Cineole, τ-Cadinol, Chrysanthemic acid, fokienol and Intermedeol (Tamir et al. 2011). In 10 representative populations, chosen according to geographical location, climate and topography, 161 volatile compounds were found in the extracts, of which 75 were minor components and not identified. Considerable variation in essential oil composition was found among populations, enabling the identification of three main chemotypes: (A) camphor - α-pinene-fokienol chemotype, (B) τ-cadinol-1,8 cineole-transchrysanthemol chemotype, and (C) intermedeol chemotype. The main compound of the southern populations was Camphor; therefore they belong to the “Camphorial” chemotype. Only the populations of Judea, Samaria and the northern Negev contain Intermedeol, therefore they belong to the “Intermedeolial” chemotype (Tamir et al. 2011).

Conclusion

Many special and unique local medicinal plants grow in the Holy Land, all with a long history of use, including scriptural documentation of many of them. However, most of them, although still used by the local population, are almost unknown in the western world. During the last decades a few ethno-botanical surveys have been conducted, in order to preserve the knowledge accumulated throughout the past. There is a great need to conserve the natural biodiversity of these plants, which has been damaged by recent intensive urban development. We think that these plants could be preserved by becoming agricultural commodities, since they have great potential as new crops and could become a source for novel bioactive compounds and drugs. In addition, some new culinary herbs could be developed by classical or by interspecific crossbreeding, as was demonstrated with oregano and sage. New products based on ancient plants and practices could bring the herbal traditions of the Holy Land to the rest of the world.