1 Kilimanjaro or Kibo?

At the western end of Sanssouci Park in Potsdam, there is the New Palace, built under King Frederick II of Prussia, but in late nineteenth century it was the summer residence of the German Emperor William II. One of the four banquet halls is designed as Grotto Hall and is decorated with minerals, shells and semi-precious stones. In the centre of these decorations, there is a stone labelled to be a rock sample from the main peak of the Kilimanjaro. The first climber Hans Meyer had brought two pieces of lava rocks with him back home to Germany and had given one of them as a present to the Emperor. After the ascent on 6 October 1889, Hans Meyer described his heroic act: ‘[…] and in virtue of my right as its first discoverer christened this hitherto unknown and unnamed mountain peak—the loftiest spot in Africa and in the German Empire—Kaiser Wilhelm’s Peak’ (Meyer 1891: 154). The Emperor accepted the stone with pleasure and ordered that it should be made a part of the decorations in the Grotto Hall after initially he had used the stone as a paperweight. In the 1950s the stone disappears and, albeit several versions about its whereabouts, remained stolen. Since then another lava stone has filled the empty space; a stone, said to have been brought from Africa by a female tourist.

This perhaps lesser known anecdote leads to a well-known fact: in May 1848, the missionary Johannes Rebmann was the first documented European to have seen the Kilimanjaro and he was also the first to give a report of the impressive sight of the snow-covered summit crater (Fig. 1). Rebmann relayed the name Mount Kilimanjaro, which stuck until today, to Europe. However, it is necessary to investigate whether or not this passed on name is correct. He ascribed the name to his first sources, the Swahili people from the coastal region around Mombasa, where he was stationed as a missionary. In his diary notes, dated 7 April 1848, that is before his first sight of the mountain, there the following explanation is given: ‘Die Ableitung des Bergnamens Kilimandaro wäre also zu machen von Kilima da Aro, d. h. Berg der Größe, großer Berg’ (Rebmann 1997: 13).Footnote 1 The missionary and philologist Johann Ludwig Krapf, who published not only Rebmann’s but also his own travel experiences in that region, added another explanation, namely that Kilimanjaro has to be understood as ‘“mountain of caravans” (Kilima, mountain,—Jaro, caravans)’ (Krapf 1860: 255).Footnote 2 This interpretation should point out that the mountain, which easily can be seen from very far away, acted as a helpful landmark for caravans. Rebmann himself soon discovered that the Swahili people from the coast were possibly misleading informants and in his report he explains: ‘On my first journey my guide had misinformed me, when he said that the people of Jagga had no word for snow; but when I asked the natives of Jagga themselves, their various statements, for example, that the Kibo when put into the fire turns into water, convinced me that they not only knew it as “Kibo”, but knew no less well its nature and properties’ (Krapf 1860: 255). One of the various stories by the Chaga or Swahili the people inhabiting the southern flank of the volcano massif, is the tale that the mountain is inaccessible because it is a gold and silver mountain and its interior is inhabited by evil spirits. Therefore, Rebmann introduced a new name: Kibo, as the Chaga people call it. He translated Kibo as white, snow, ice, cold or similar, which suggests snow coverage (Rebmann 1997: 33) and found that it was synonymous with ‘Beredi’, the Suahili term for cold (Krapf 1860: 236). Therefore, he put ‘Mt. Kilimandjaro covered with eternal snow’ on his sketch map (Rebmann 1850). Rebmann did not limit the term to the main summit, however, and in his writings there is no indication of a name for the distinguished second or eastern summit, which he also described and which is clearly noticeable on an early printed map (Petermann 1859). The often opaque classification is not to the least a result of how missionaries perceived things through their European perception. This concerns the structure of indigenous languages as well as the description of landscapes. To come to a common understanding on landscape elements, Europeans and their African informants inevitably had to fail, because there were neither terms nor toponyms for a direct word to word translations. Instead, the desired information had to be understood from the description. In this context, Voigt (2012: 34) speaks about a transformation of ‘Sprachbilder in adäquate Kartenelemente’.Footnote 3

Fig. 1
figure 1

(Courtesy Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Kart. C 16732-4)

Richard Kiepert Deutscher Kolonial-Atlas (1:3,000,000) was published in the 1890s in a general scale to get an overview for use in the colonies. Sheet Aequatorial-East-Africa (amended 1895) shows the Kilimanjaro and adjacencies with the routes of the most important explorers

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The phenomenon of snow and ice-covered mountains in equatorial Africa, described for the first time by Rebmann and Krapf, was confirmed by the travels of Carl von der Decken, undertaken in 1861 together with geologist Richard Thornton and in 1862 accompanied by the naturalist Otto Kersten. As a result of their work it had—for the first time—become possible to describe with some precision the morphological structure of the volcano massif; however, the uncertainty regarding naming and classification still remained. The map to log von der Decken‘s first journey, drawn by Kiepert (1863), and the map of Bruno Hassenstein (Hassenstein 1868) are both based on the observations by von der Decken together with Thornton and Kersten. Both maps refer to the Schneeberg [=snow mountain] Kilima-Ndscharo either in the map title or naming it directly beside the mountain. On Hassenstein’s map, the Kilima-Ndscharo is in addition named as the Kibo der Wadschagga, but printed in another character style. The two main peaks are already distinguished, but they do not yet have their own toponyms. Instead they are simply called Grosser and Kleiner Kilima-ndjaro or Gipfel. However, on a map dated 1864, which Hassenstein also created according to the travel accounts of different authors, we find yet another attribution: Schneeberg Kilima-Ndscharo der Wateita (Hassenstein 1864).

Rebmann had already pointed out the difficulties, which arise when different groups name the very same object. Onomasticians, the experts on geographical names, know very well this phenomenon, which is also evident on the maps of early explorers in East Africa. On a map created by Oscar Baumann in 1894, one can find, besides the term Kilima-Njaro, yet another toponym, which is set in parentheses: Dónyo Ebor i.e. Weisser Berg, which is a name used by the Maasai people (Baumann 1894). This means that three different language groups use three different terms for the highest mountain of Africa: Kilima Njaro is used by the Swahili and Wateita people, Kibo by the Chaga people and Dónyo Ebor by the Maasai people. However, the question remains, whether the toponyms refer either to the whole mountain massif or only the white covered summit area.

The spellings Kilima Ndscharo or Kilima Njaro on the first maps still show the attempt of etymological derivation and pronunciation. Until today, however, no definite clarification of this toponym existed. Simo (2002) speculates about the possible translation Kleiner Hügel [=small hill] von Njaro as a result of an indirect and therefore inadequate question-answer dialogue (cf. Hamann and Honold 2011: 59). Regarding the naming of the highest African mountain there is the frequent occurrance of communication barriers and misunderstanding when questioning people: What was said to Rebmann and what did he understand? It will probably no longer be possible to clarify whether Kilimanjaro originally was a toponym or not, or whether the inhabitants really had a name for the whole mountain massif or only its peak region. However, this name, which for European ears has a wonderful exotic sound, has become the well-established name for the impressive appearance of the volcanic mountain.

2 New Toponyms by Hans Meyer

When the colonial partition of East Africa happened in 1885, almost all of the Kilimanjaro massif became part of the German protectorate Deutsch-Ostafrika. Along with the creation of administrative structures, economic development and military control, the scientific exploration of the snow-covered mountains became a particular focal matter in East Africa. It was regarded as a major national goal to reach the summit and that was tackled as a research project under the direction of Hans Meyer.Footnote 4 The efforts of his pushes for the summit region are impressively noted on the early maps by the names given to numerous before his ascents still unknown and therefore unnamed landscape elements in the Kilimanjaro region. In fact, Meyer produced a real flood of names and neologisms when he entered the uninhabited and uncultivated heights of the massif. Further down we will a closer look at them.Footnote 5 Already before Meyer there had been some attempts at climbing the peak, but they only reached the lower ice boundary. On the maps of these expeditions no new toponyms were recorded.Footnote 6

On his first attempt, Meyer and an official of the Deutsch Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft (German East Africa Company), Ernst Albrecht von Eberstein, at an altitude of about 4500 m, reached the saddle plateau between Kibo and Mawenzi and even progressed further to the lower ice boundary at about 5000 m. The relevant map draft does not contain any toponyms, but only descriptive indications of distinctive landscape elements like Verwitterte Lavahügel [=weathered lava hills], Lavaströme [=lava flows], Schneefelder [=snow fields], Gletscher [=glaciers], Asche [=ashes] and so on. The central crater of the Kibo is represented as an ice dome (Meyer 1887).Footnote 7

In 1889, Meyer and the Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller, as previously mentioned in the opening paragraph, successfully ascended the summit, where they gave a name to the highest point of Africa and the German Empire. Meyer was successful in making money from his travels by publishing them as fascinating and widely read scientific adventures, furnishing them with a number of maps in different scales.Footnote 8 Map II,Footnote 9 created by Bruno Hassenstein, has an increased density of toponyms, especially on the southern side of the mountain, where it shows settlement areas, political units and the landscape names of the Chaga people. What is remarkable, is that there are no names for settlements with only a few exceptions like the Bomas (palisade fortified buildings or ruler’s residences) as well as the few places of colonial administration or mission stations. Typical for this map type are descriptions along vaguely dotted lines with terms instead of the use of symbols. The northern part of the mountain contains only such designations, which have been obtained by observations from a distance or observations by other travellers without the possibility of a precise localization (Grassland and Herbs, Upper and Lower Line of Primeval Forest, Grassy Terrace with permanent Maasai Kraals). Map IIIFootnote 10 shows the first detailed cartographic representation of the landscape in the summit region, although some things could only have been guessed. Altogether the map shows only a few toponyms, they are mostly descriptive names for peculiar landmarks: Triplets, Red Cent, Front Hill or Red Wall along the route, which were a help for orientation or offered a camp and protection for climbers: Lava Cave, Kibo Camp and Rock of the Four men (or in the text Meyer 1891: 139 Four Men’s rock).

Remarkable are the now well-legible and identifiable toponyms named after a person. They can be found in the area of the peaks of Kibo and Mawensi: beside Highest Peak or South Peak, there is a second main summit with the name Purtscheller Peak. At Kibo one now can read alongside North Glacier or Cone of Eruption the names Hans Meyer Notch, Ratzel Glacier and the already mentioned Kaiser Wilhlem Peak. The designations of Purtscheller Peak, Ratzel Glacier and Kaiser Wilhelm Peak are not meant as parallel German or English names of already existing endonyms, but they are new creations referring to unnamed landscape elements. Meyer also provides explanations for his inscriptions, for example: ‘In memory of a friend, we called this, our first glacier on Kilimanjaro, the “Ratzel glacier”’ (Meyer 1891: 145 ff.) or he honours his climber Ludwig Purtscheller, probably in order to mitigate his disappointment as he has not reached the Mawensi summit (Meyer 1891: 177). The Hans Meyer Notch was originally described as Ostscharte auf dem Ringwall; it was named after him, because in 1887 he had failed to successfully conclude his ascent of Mount Kibo (Meyer 1891: 180). It is a trench at the crater’s outer rim on the northeast end of the Ratzel Glacier.

Until the next ascent of Mount Kilimanjaro by Meyer in 1898, there were no new toponyms on the maps in the holdings of the Map Department of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. However, the morphological division of the mountains into in three parts, namely Kibo, Mawensi and Schira Ridge are well worked out. The now defined third area of the summit, for which there is obviously no endonym, has a name derived from the local Chaga language, whose people settled the landscapes at the southwestern slopes of the Kilimanjaro.Footnote 11 The maps created around that time are mostly compilations from already published maps or reports of various travellers. The cartographic focus is mainly on the corrections regarding the positions of objects. The respective sources are generally given in the title.Footnote 12

Meyer describes the results of his last visit in 1898 in his book ‘Kilimandjaro’, which was published in 1900. Within this book is the Spezialkarte des Kilimandjaro 1:100.000, created by Paul Krauss (Fig. 2). The first aim of this trip was the systematic research of the glaciation of the Kibo, which is now clearly demonstrated by the designation of individual glaciers. At the west side of Kibo, Meyer now identifies several ice streams with various glacial lobes separated by ridges. He christens them with names of important geographers, geologists and glaciologists: Credner-, Drygalski- and Penck-GletscherFootnote 13 (Meyer 1900: 174).Footnote 14 Further to the southwest, Meyer identifies two glaciers in the deeply incised erosion gully of the volcanic cone, which according to the then valid nomenclature was called a Barranco.Footnote 15 Accordingly, he names them Kleiner and Großer Barranco-Gletscher (Meyer 1900: 181).Footnote 16 At the southern slope, he interprets the glacial situation, which consists of four glaciers with six glacial lobes. From east to west he sticks to his pattern of naming in honor of individuals which he deems important: Rebmann-, Decken-, Kersten- and Heim-GletscherFootnote 17 (Meyer 1900: 222). When comparing the 1900 map with the one of 1890, one can see south of Hans Meyer Notch a further incision in the eastern crater rim. This new incision was formed as a result of deglaciation, which occurred in the short span of that decade, so Meyer named the new notch in appreciation of Kurt JohannesFootnote 18 Johannes-Scharte (Meyer 1900: 354).

Fig. 2
figure 2

(Courtesy Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Us 1109)

Paul Krauss Spezialkarte des Kilimandjaro. Nach den neuesten Aufnahmen von Prof. Dr. Hans Meyer und mit Benutzung von Messungen, Entwürfen und Skizzen von Hauptmann Johannes, Dr. Carl Lent, Oberst v. Trotha, Graf Wickenburg, Dr. A. Widenmann u. a. 1:100,000 was published in 1900 as an appendix to Meyer, Hans Der Kilimandjaro; Reisen und Studien Reimer, Berlin

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During this expedition Meyer, again, honours his European companion with a toponym. The noted painter of mountain sceneries, Ernst PlatzFootnote 19 becomes the namesake for a prominent volcano cone north of the Schira Ridge: Platz-Kegel (Meyer 1900: 178). Other remarkable rocks, which stick out from the ice masses of the glacier and therefore are very helpful for positioning, bear the names of the cartographers Hassenstein and Ravenstein.Footnote 20 As ‘Stein’ (stone) is already an element of both family names, no generic term is added. Another remarkable landscape element, which has no additional morphological description, Meyer in commemoration names after the geologist Carl Lent, who was murdered in Rombo in 1894: Lentgruppe (Meyer 1900: 162).Footnote 21 Hans Meyer does not only honour geoscientists by using their family names for toponyms, but also personalities of significance in the colonial context, missionaries or politicians on the map: Wissmann-Spitze (Meyer 1900: 155), Liebert-Spitze (Meyer 1900: 308), Krapf-Hügel, Volkens-Hügel (Meyer 1900: 114), Bismarck-Hügel, Moltke-Stein.Footnote 22 From the literature it is not always clear, whether these are neologisms were created by Hans Meyer or whether he used older sources. The individual objects are prominent landmarks like hills, cones or rocks, but only some are located in the summit area or in especially exposed places. They are to be found across the map sheet, mostly offside the much-used routes.

Hans Meyer may have had different motivations for using the names of glaciologists of merit. On the one hand, this research field had just emerged, but already produced solid theories and scientific consensus. On the other hand, it could be interpreted as an indication of where he sees his own place within this young discipline. Whereas the first Europeans, who had seen the Kilimanjaro, spoke of a snow or firm ice cover, Meyer was able to prove that indeed there is a tropical glaciation in East Africa almost exactly on the equator, which put him on the same level as the other glaciologists.Footnote 23

For the sake of completeness, it is important to include a word on Baumann-Hügel (Baumann Hill) and the Kersten-Hügel (Kersten Hill), two more exploration pioneers, who are honoured this way. Since 1890, the volcanic cones southeast of the Kilimanjaro massif can be found on the maps in various forms, since 1910 they are set in parentheses under the endonyms Boro and Vilima Viwili.Footnote 24 These two examples show an early turn away from the use of exonym neologisms on the official colonial maps and a tendency towards existing endonyms. This leads to the question: how durable are the names found in the Kilimanjaro peak region?

3 International Use of German Names

Of particular interest is the question, to which degree these inscriptions found international recognition. An initial answer might be found in the official German map series Karte von Deutsch-Ostafrika 1:300.000 (Fig. 3a). After just 16 years, the 35 map sheets of this series were completed in 1911 (Passarge 1912; Brunner 1989, 2004; Demhardt 2000: 172 ff.). At the time of its production, this map series was deemed of such high quality that even before the transfer of the territory to the League of Nations the British General Staff and the British Survey began reprinting the maps (Geographical Section General Staff 1915 ff.). With appreciation, a note on the map sheets points out: ‘NOTE: Copied from a German map on the same scale’ (Fig. 3b). A comparison of these two editions provides a good perspective on the sustainability of German toponyms. The Kilimanjaro region is on sheet B 5. At first sight, the map image of the British map series is identical to the German map series, as could be expected. When taking a closer look, however, one discovers that there are considerably less toponyms, also less endonyms. In the British edition, there is no equivalent to the name of the summit, the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze, it remains unnamed and is simply indicated by a point and the indication of its altitude.Footnote 25 In any case, the summit region is represented nearly without toponyms, only the Credner Glacier is recorded. This may be due to the small scale, since in the German edition there are also only few indications in abridged spelling: K.Wilh.-Sp., Ratzel-Gl., Credner-Gl. and H.-Meyer-Schte.Footnote 26

Fig. 3
figure 3

a Karte von Deutsch Ostafrika 1:300,000. Sheet B 5 Kilimandscharo was produced in 1911 by Paul Sprigade and Max Moisel (Courtesy Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Kart. C 16739-B 5). b The Geographic Section General Staff reprinted the German official maps from 1915–1917: German East Africa 1:300,000. Sheet Kilimanjaro B 5 (Courtesy Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Kart. C 16740/50-B 5)

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However, toponyms related to individuals like Wissmann Peak, Purtscheller Peak, Liebert Peak, Krapf Hill and even the Bismarck Hill, can be found on the map. The British paid tribute to some representatives of the German colonial empire. Scientific merits or significance in colonial politics may be the reasons, why personal names are retained as a kind of acceptance. The generic terms of the designation are translated, as other toponyms of the map sheet. It must be noted that there could not have been any form of final edit on the names, since there are designations like Platz-Kegel or Lentgruppe. Finally, there are more examples, also regarding toponyms, which do not include personal names, such as Rote Mauer, Bastions Bach, Schiranadel, Europäer-Rücken or Galuma-Höhle, yet with umlauts, where even the generic terms have not been translated.

Toponyms from the German colonial period were also used in the map series 1:50,000, which after World War II came about as a result of surveying flights carried out by the Royal Air Force and others on behalf of the Directorate of Overseas Surveys.Footnote 27 The section of interest here was published in 1963 as ‘Sheet 56/2 Kilimanjaro’. On a map of this scale all names listed already have generic terms translated into English. It shows that Phase (g) ‘Replacement of German names by English names after WW I’, as postulated by Ormeling (2003: 50), can clearly be determined, but with a certain delay. The personal toponyms in the Kilimanjaro region, created by Meyer, were not only still in use, with the obvious exception of the summit, which lost its dedication to the German Emperor, even the way to inscribe names of scientists or other personalities of merit is still being continued. This can be seen on large-scale maps which were published after 1900.

In 1906–1907, the geographer Fritz Jaeger and his cousin Eduard Oehler undertook a prolonged expedition to Mount Kilimanjaro, publishing the cartographic observations in two maps (Jaeger 1909). On the ‘Kartenskizze des westlichen Kibo’ (c. 1:40,000) one can identify the following new toponyms related to individuals: Lentgrat as eastern continuation of the Lentgruppe, Kleiner Penck-Gletscher as separate glacier tongue, Uhlig-Gletscher as separate glacier between Penck-Gletscher and Kl.-Barranco-Gletscher, Oehler-Grat and next to it the Oehler-Tal or Hans Meyer Grat (Fig. 4). The latter is a lava stream, which from afar had correctly been identified by Meyer in 1898. This led Jaeger to name this ridge after his predecessor and fellow geographer (Jaeger 1909: 128 ff.). With the toponyms Oehler-Grat and Oehler-Tal the honouring of travel companions is continued, too.

Fig. 4
figure 4

(Courtesy Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Kart. C 16960/90)

Fritz Jaeger published in 1909 the sketch map Kartenskizze des Westlichen Kibo. Nach eigenen Kompaß-Aufnahmen und Photographien von Eduard Oehler konstruiert von Fritz Jaeger, gezeichnet von W. Rux as map 2 in the scale of about 1:40,000 based on his cartographic observations

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In 1912, Oehler took part in another ascent to Mount Kilimanjaro, this time with the geographer Fritz Klute. Because of World War I, the results of that expedition were only published in 1920 and 1921 respectively (Fig. 5).Footnote 28 On the relevant map Karte der Hochregion des Kilimandscharo-Gebirges (1:50,000), the glacier which previously was Penck-Gletscher now is named Großer Penck-Gletscher, in order to clearly distinguish it from the Kleiner Penck-Gletscher. The new toponyms used by Jaeger and Klute are a direct result of improved and thus more precise surveying abilities of glacial phenomena, but also because of the changing glacier landscape caused by the already discovered melting activities. By the retreat of the ice masses new landscape elements become visible elements, which before were prominently set apart from the ice mantle, but now were no longer easily recognizable in the rugged environment. Thus, soon the Ravenstein and the Hassenstein disappeared from the maps. In the area of Mawensi, their map now shows the toponyms Neumann-Turm and Neumann-Tal, which can possibly be attributed to the ornithologist Oscar Neumann (1867–1946). The summit, until then simply called Höchste Spitze [=highest peak], now is given the name Hans-Meyer-Spitze.

Fig. 5
figure 5

(Courtesy Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Kart. GfE J 5-497)

Fritz Klute and Eduard Oehler created their Karte der Hochregion des Kilimandscharo-Gebirges nach stereophotogrammetrischen Aufnahmen, flüchtigen Triangulationen u. Krokis […]. Konstruiert u. gezeichnet unter teilweiser Benutzung des vorhandenen Materials von Fritz Schröder unter Leitung u. Mitarbeit von Fritz Klute. 1:50,000 in 1912. The publication of this map, however, was only possible after WWI

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Research on glacial history and ice mass budget at Kilimanjaro still uses the toponyms introduced by Meyer, Jaeger and Klute (Cullen et al. 2013, S. 423), but as a result of extensive investigations, new survey methods and the morphodynamic developments, other glaciers could be defined. One of these, Furtwängler-Gletscher, which is located in the interior of Kibo, is named after the mountaineer Walter Furtwängler, who in 1912 was the first to ski down from the Kilimanjaro summit. Meyer had still considered this glacier as being connected to the Barranco-Gletscher.Footnote 29 Finally, in 1954 the government of Tanganyika named the inner cinder cone of the Kibo Reusch-Crater, because they intended to commemorate the 25th ascent of the summit by the missionary, ethnologist and mountain climber Richard Reusch.Footnote 30

In summarizing, it can be stated that Hans Meyer, when naming individual and prominent landscape elements, which did not exclusively serve orientation purposes such as way marking or campFootnote 31 for an expedition, applied personal preferences. Thus, he named the glaciers at Kibo, which he examined more closely, after glaciologists or discoverers of merit. He also honoured his travel companions, other scientists or colonial administrators by making them namesakes of mountain peaks, although mostly in somehow remote territories. In part, this procedure was later continued by scientists of other nations, especially when naming newly emerged glaciers.

Finally, one should also look at modern hiking maps to see whether personified toponyms continue to exist until today. Depending on the scale, one can indeed find a selection of these names with English translations of the generic terms.Footnote 32 In the area of Schira Ridge, these maps show the toponym Klute Peak, a name which does not appear on any of the dicussed German maps. Furthermore, on some of these maps the Bismarck Towers, or in a wrong spelling the Bismark Towers, are marked at the southeastern rim of the crater, without there previously having existed an equivalent on German maps. They document, however, already described problems of errors in translation because of insufficient knowledge and/or understanding. As a result of the ignorance regarding the naming practice and the etymological derivation, the cone, for example, which is named after the mountain painter Ernst Platz is translated literally as: Cone Place. The source of this misunderstanding is official, the toponym comes from ‘Sheet 56/1 West Hai’, published in 1963. It is part of the already-mentioned map series East Africa 1:50.000 (Tanganyika) series Y 742 from the Direcorate of Overseas Surveys.

German Generic :

Names English Translation

Bach:

Creek

Bresche/Barranco:

Breach

Gletscher:

Glacier

Grat/Rücken/Kamm:

Ridge

Gruppe:

Group

Hügel:

Hill

Höhle:

Cave

Kegel:

Cone

Kette:

Range

Krater:

Crater

Lager:

Camp

Mauer:

Wall

Nadel:

Needle

Scharte:

Notch

Spitze:

Peak

Stein:

Stone

Tal:

Valley

Turm:

Tower