Keywords

1 Introduction

Japanese lesson study has been a popular professional development approach in recent years (Stigler and Hiebert 1999). In this method, teachers collaborate to study teaching content and instructions by observing lessons and discussing them. The careful development of research lesson , as well as observation and discussion, is an important component for lesson study. Through such an approach, teachers try to improve the quality of their teaching.

The origins of this type of lesson study can be traced back to the early 1900s when study meetings about new teaching methods took place in attached schools and private schools (Nakatome 1984). Attached schools were schools that carried pre-primary education, primary education, and secondary education attached to the normal school . In those schools, advanced education and educational experiments were carried. Curriculum development and the development of new textbooks and teaching methods were conducted in collaboration with teachers of normal schools. The study meetings were places for presentation of their studies. The attached schools had the role of spreading the research results of the normal school to the ordinary schools. After World War II, lesson study was well established as a strategy of in-service teacher training by the middle of the 1960s (Fernandez and Yoshida 2004). This paper attempts to determine the origin of lesson study prior to the early 1900s. The primary characteristic of lesson study involves teachers careful observing each other presenting research lessons followed by critical discussion, but the origin of this style and the background of its acceptance are not well known. How was this professional development approach built? In this paper, this question will be explored through a historical methodology.

2 The Beginning of the New School System

During the early Meiji era (1868–1912) in Japan, the Meiji government introduced the Western social system for modernization of the country’s resources, including the school system. Before the Meiji era, Japan had adopted isolation policies in a feudal society, because contact with Western civilization was not convenient for the control of the feudal society. Equality and political participation of the people in Western civilization were incompatible with a feudal society. But what the isolation policy brought was not only isolation from social thought but also isolation from the progress of science and technology. The policy deprived Japan of opportunities to absorb progress in the scientific revolution and military technologies of Western countries. Japan was delayed from Western civilization.

The nineteenth century was the era when the Western countries spread colonies. Developing countries were being turned into colonies of Western countries. The Meiji government was established by breaking the feudal system in order to respond to such an international situation. The Meiji government aimed to adopt Western civilization to avoid the colonization of Japan.

The Meiji government, established in 1868, quickly promoted social institutional reforms and adopted Western civilization. It soon established an educational system. In 1872, a new school system named “Gaku-sei” [School System] was started by the government. Previously, only “Terakoya” [primary school for general public] and “Hankou” [regional government school for feudal clans] were available, which were not managed by the national government. Therefore, we can say that the modern school system in Japan began with “Gaku-sei.”

In “Gaku-sei,” the schools consisted of “Dai-gaku” [university], “Tyu-gaku” [secondary school], and “Syo-gaku” [elementary school]. The Meiji government endeavored to spread “Syo-gaku” to the whole nation and to build “Dai-gaku” in big cities. The government developed the school system from elementary education to higher education. Elementary education was available to all students, while higher education was considered to be the elite education of talented people. In this era, the matter of urgency was to introduce Western civilization and technology and to build a modern country similar to Western countries. The schools undertook the responsibility to provide the country with appropriately trained human resources.

For mathematics education , the Meiji government directed schools to introduce Western arithmetic instead of Japanese arithmetic, because they needed to import Western technology. They needed to understand Western mathematics in order to read Western books and understand the theories and mathematical formulas written in them. The subject “San-yo” [Arithmetic] was set up for elementary mathematics education. “San-yo” used Arabic numbers and written calculations based on decimal notation. This was totally different from Japanese arithmetic during that era. In addition, the subject name was later changed from “San-yo” to “San-jutsu”, both having same meaning of Arithmetic.

3 Normal School and the Object Lesson Approach

To achieve the new school system, “Gaku-sei,” teacher training was also needed. In 1872, the Meiji government established a normal school in Tokyo, to ensure that the preservice teachers learned the new teaching methods. American teachers, having experience in teacher training, were invited to teach in the normal school. One of these was Marion Scott, who introduced the classroom teaching method in which one teacher teaches all the students together by using the blackboard or teaching charts and a specific teaching approach, the object lesson approach.

The object lesson approach is one of the teaching methods which was famous in American normal schools in that era. The aim was to apply Pestalozzian theory to elementary teaching. According to Pestalozzian theory, all cognition is based on one’s intuition, and intuition is absolutely essential for human cognition. We recognize things by intuition and then form a concept. This was seen as a natural order of mental development. The starting point of intuition is the image we receive through the senses. Therefore, teaching should not begin by reading books but instead from the observation of a familiar object. Teachers then expect their students to learn intuitively (Pestalozzi 1801).

From this standpoint, children learn from their direct experience with the world by using natural objects . They recognize things and form concepts through concrete manipulation and observation of objects. This is founded upon the idea that children already have the ability themselves to learn and to grow. Education is regarded as a developmental activity in terms of promoting voluntary growth and an organic activity in terms of emphasizing the child’s inner personality. Teaching must be shifted to emphasize the child’s internal cognition through the use of natural objects.

In arithmetic, a teacher has students count real objects , such as fingers or small stones. The student can recognize numbers intuitively through counting the real objects. In the case of 3 + 4 = 7, for example, the teacher should not start from the abstract equation and operation. She should give her students three stones and four stones and then have them gather all the stones and count the sum of them. This activity will provide students a recognition of the process of addition and an intuition of the meaning of 3 + 4 = 7.

The object lesson approach was introduced as an improvement over teaching by lecture, since that had been the previous method. In lecture, the teacher imparted the correct knowledge, and the students received it. Although the object lesson approach was an unfamiliar method when first introduced at that time in Japan, the normal school teachers were challenged to use this new education method. In normal school , new teachers were trained to understand the object lesson approach and to introduce it to all the schools in the country. Graduates of the normal school were expected to play a role in spreading new teaching methods at each school. Some were assigned as teachers and others as instructors at regional teacher schools in a leading position in schools across Japan.

4 Arithmetic Teaching by the Object Lesson Approach

The role of normal schools was not only to train teachers but also to propose new rules for instruction through editing and publishing instruction manuals and textbooks . At the beginning of “Gaku-sei,” the only books available were translations of foreign texts, but these were not useful for elementary students because of the high level of information. Suitable textbooks for students were in strong demand by teachers. Responding to the demands, the normal school edited textbooks for each subject, using foreign textbooks as a guideline. These textbooks became the foundation of modern textbooks in Japanese schools. In arithmetic textbooks, we can see significant changes influenced by the object lesson approach.

4.1 Textbook for Introducing Written Calculation

Hisan Kunmou [Enlightenment on Written Calculation] was the designated textbook for elementary schools in “Gaku-sei” (Fig. 1). The textbook was published during the Meiji era for new arithmetic education, but it did not introduce the object lesson approach. Instead, it aimed to introduce written calculation, as performed in Western arithmetic, in Japan. In this textbook, the example 25673+ 8499 = 34172 was used to introduce addition (Fig. 2). Using these numbers, the algorithm of written addition was explained. This was a general and abstract explanation for the algorithm. In addition, the introductory example was not suitable for elementary students. After this introduction, practice drills were given. At the beginning of “Gaku-sei,”, such a textbook was commonly used.

Fig. 1
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The cover of Hisan Kunmou [Enlightenment on Written Calculation] (Tsukamoto 1869)

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Fig. 2
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Addition in Hisan Kunmou [Enlightenment on Written Calculation] (Tsukamoto 1869)

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The abstract of the translation of Fig. 2 is as follows:

Addition

The calculation putting numbers together is called addition. You add all the numbers and find the total number. The total number is called the “sum.” The sign of addition is “+.”

When you add two numbers A and B, first write number A horizontally and then write number B under it. Write numbers according to the positional notation, ones and ones and tens and tens, and other places in same way. Add numbers for each position and write the sum under the line beneath the number B. If there is a carry forward, add 1 to the sum in the next place.

Explanations of the positional notation and the algorithm in general:

25673 8499 34172

3 + 9 = 12. Write 2 on ones , 7 + 9 = 16, 16 + 1 = 17. Write 7 on tens, 6 + 4 = 10, 10 + 1 = 11. Write 1 on hundreds, 5 + 8 = 13, 13 + 1 = 14. Write 4 on thousands, 2 + 1 = 3. Write 3 on ten thousands. Therefore the sum is 34172.

4.2 New Arithmetic Textbook for Object Lesson Approach

In 1873, Sho-gaku Sanjutsu-syo [Elementary Arithmetic Textbook] edited by the normal school was published (Fig. 3). This was not only a new arithmetic textbook but also a representative of the object lesson approach in that era. In this textbook, addition was introduced through pictures (Fig. 4). By being shown objects, students were expected to understand the meaning of addition by their intuition. No equations were initially given, as these were intended to be derived from students’ observations. Initially, small numbers, such as 1 and 1, were used. Such an approach seems very natural today, but compared with the earlier-used textbooks , this was a major change in student learning . After this introduction, the addition of numbers proceeded step by step, up to 10 + 9.

Fig. 3
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The cover of “Sho-gaku Sanjutsu-syo” [Elementary Arithmetic Textbook] (Monbusyo 1873)

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Fig. 4
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Addition in “Sho-gaku Sanjutsu-syo” [Elementary Arithmetic Textbook] (Monbusyo 1873)

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The translated text of Fig. 4 is as follows:

Section 5 Addition

  1. (1)

    One flag added to one flag makes two flags.

  2. (2)

    Two peaches added to one peach makes three peaches.

The differences between these textbooks are clear, namely, the foundational principles of teaching. The former focused on teaching an algorithm for an abstract operation, using difficult numbers to explain this general operation. The latter showed addition and the results of this operation through pictures. No explanations were provided for the algorithm, and equations were absent in the initial parts of the textbook. The students were expected to recognize addition through their intuition by observing objects. The numbers given were simple and easy to count, gradually being increased. It is clear that the latter is more suitable as an introduction to elementary arithmetic.

5 Spreading the Object Lesson Approach

To use the new textbook based on the object lesson approach, the teachers in the nation needed to be well trained. To spread the object lesson approach, a new teacher training program was developed in the normal school . The program started for preservice teacher training.

5.1 The Use of Criticism Lessons and Model Lessons as a Teacher Training Method

The normal school teacher referenced some books on the introduction of the object lesson approach. These were imported from America. One of the books was written by Edward Sheldon, who was the principal of New York State Normal School in Oswego. He introduced Pestalozzian theory to elementary education, experimented with it on attached schools and public schools in Oswego, and developed the teacher training method to help teachers practice this theory. In his book, “A Manual of Elementary Instruction for the Use of Public and Private Schools and Normal Classes; Containing a Graduated Course of Object Lesson approach for Training the Senses and Developing the Faculties of Children,” he introduced criticism lesson and model lessons as the methods to be used in normal schools (Sheldon 1871).

The criticism lesson was a lesson presented by a student in normal school. Other students and the teacher observed the lesson and then expressed their opinions on the various points of the lesson in which they thought the teacher had succeeded or failed.

The model lesson was a lesson given by a well-trained teacher. The normal school students would take notes on the lesson, observing the teacher’s ideas and plans. It is important to observe a sufficient number of model lessons, as well as criticism lessons, to develop a well-trained teacher.

Teacher training and the object lesson approach cannot be separated. To succeed at spreading the object lesson approach throughout the whole country, well-trained teachers were needed. On the other hand, to train teachers, the object lesson approach itself is very useful, because the teachers required teaching skills in order to be successful at the object lesson approach. The object lesson approach provided a suitable learning experience for teachers.

5.2 Criticism Lesson and Points of Criticism

Sheldon (1871) defined specific points of criticism in his criticism lesson. These four categories included matter, method, teacher, and children. Regarding subject matter, three points were awarded on the basis of whether it was suitable for children. In the method category, seven were awarded on the basis of whether the teacher clearly comprehended the distinction between information that had to be imparted by the teacher and information that had to be developed by the child. For the teacher category, four points were awarded, one each for classroom management, the standing position in the classroom, the manner of the teacher, and the language of the teacher. In the children category, two points were awarded, one for attitude toward the children and one for showing an understanding of the students. What exactly these described were as follows:

Points of Criticism

  1. I.

    Matter

    1. 1.

      Whether suitable to children; whether exercising observation, conception, reason, or all these.

    2. 2.

      Lesson – whether bearing on one point; into what heads divided.

    3. 3.

      Whether, in a Scripture or moral lesson, an application be made; whether the right one. In a lesson on an animal, whether the children are led to see the wisdom and goodness of God in the adaptation of parts to mode of life, and whether human feelings are cultivated.

  2. II.

    Method

    1. 1.

      Whether the teacher clearly apprehends the distinction between what must be told and what must be given.

    2. 2.

      Whether she distinguishes the various mental faculties one from another; knows which should be, and how exercised.

    3. 3.

      Whether good illustrations are used; the specimens large enough and sufficient for distribution; whether diagrams were drawn when required.

    4. 4.

      Whether appropriate questions were used when general answers are wanted. Leading questions only to obtain an admission, on which another question is based.

    5. 5.

      Whether the board was sufficiently used – new terms written on it; also titles and heads of lessons; also, with elder children, definitions and statements.

    6. 6.

      Summary, of what kind; whether of the kind most appropriate to the children and the lesson.

    7. 7.

      Whether proper use was made of “hands out” and S. R. (Summary Report)

  3. III.

    Teacher

    1. 1.

      Whether capable of swaying the class according to her will and of awakening sympathy.

    2. 2.

      Whether attending to all, of carrying on the lesson with a few forward children; whether taking the right standing position.

    3. 3.

      Manner – whether appropriate – bustling and excited – slow and languid – cheerful and energetic; whether, if Scriptural lesson, reverential tone of voice.

    4. 4.

      Language – whether appropriate; syntax and correct pronunciation.

  4. IV.

    Children

    1. 1.

      Whether respectful, attentive; whether interested; if so, to what interest is owing.

    2. 2.

      Whether likely to carry the lesson away as a whole; if a Scripture or moral lesson, whether their hearts were touched.(Sheldon 1871, 24–25)

To conduct a criticism properly, Sheldon mentioned that it was necessary to have a presiding critic and to develop a summary of the opinion at the end. This is similar to what is currently done. The commentator should be present at the lesson study. In the criticism lesson, two principal objectives should always be achieved: to acquaint future teachers with the principles of education that are based on the nature of children and to utilize the principles of teaching. By comparing the objectives with the outcomes, the criticism lesson can succeed in training teachers. These approaches are also appropriate in today’s lesson study. The research class was carefully prepared according to the teaching objectives. The results of the lesson should be evaluated with reference to the objectives.

These points of criticism are exactly the same as those introduced in teacher training classes at normal schools . In the instruction manual “Kaisei Kyojujutsu” [Revision of Teaching Methods], written by normal school teachers in 1883, the points of criticism were introduced as viewpoints to use while observing other teachers’ classes (Wakabayashi and Shirai 1883). This method was also emphasized for use by normal school students. In those days, normal schools were established in local regions of Japan. The object lesson was spread from the Tokyo normal school to the local normal schools through manuals, the new textbooks mentioned previously, and the teachers who graduated from Tokyo. This dissemination then spread from the local normal schools to the entire country.

5.3 Development of Lesson Study

Inagaki (1995) described the criticism lesson as being practiced around the late 1890s. These lessons were conducted in elementary schools attached to normal schools . In this case, although the teaching methods were changing from the object lesson to Herbert’s five phases of teaching, the criticism lesson remained a useful method to develop and train new teachers. Herbert’s five phases of teaching were introduced as formalization of the teaching method in Japan. In the first phase, the teacher prepared a topic for imparting new knowledge to the children. He then actually presented the topic to the children and questioned them about it. Third, the children compared the new knowledge with what they already knew. Fourth, the children organized both new and old ideas into one system. Finally, the children reviewed the systematized knowledge and applied it to daily life. These five phases of teaching were the prototype of the problem-solving approach in Japan.

In the early 1900s, many local boards of education held conferences for teachers in order to develop new teaching methods. The criticism lesson was accepted as a method to be used during teachers’ conferences. The conferences were called “Jugyo-hihyo-kai” [criticism lesson conference] or “Jugyo-kenkyu-kai” [Lesson study conference]. This can be seen in the educational magazines published in that era; some records were found about the use of lesson study not only in normal schools but also in local elementary schools (Figs. 5 and 6).

Fig. 5
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The cover of “Kyouiku Kenkyu” [Educational Research] (Shotou-kyouiku Kenkyukai 1904)

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Fig. 6
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The cover of “Tyutou Kyouiku” [Secondary Education] (Tyutou-kyouiku Kenkyukai 1908)

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As stated earlier, the criticism lesson was originally established as part of lesson study, later spreading to local normal schools for teacher training. The criticism lesson later expanded its role from preservice teacher training to in-service professional development. From the historical development of the criticism lesson, we can see the origin of lesson study in spreading the object lesson and teacher training during the early Meiji era in Japan.

6 Conclusion

The origin of Japanese lesson study can be seen in the early Meiji era. During this time, the object lesson approach was introduced as a new teaching method. To spread the method, teacher training became an important issue. Preservice teachers in normal schools would practice the object lesson approach by using the criticism lesson. This demonstrates the origin of lesson study and its principles. The criticism lesson later expanded its role from preservice teacher training to in-service professional development.