Introduction

Wild food plants (WFPs) play a significant role in the livelihoods of many people living in remote areas around the world, notably in offering dependable alternatives when crop production declines or collapses [1,2,3,4,5]. Wild edible plants provide carbohydrates, proteins, fiber, vitamins, and minerals, with a high concentration of vitamins A and C, zinc, iron, calcium, iodine, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and folacin. In addition, WFPs are useful for developing novel food crops through domestication and functioning as a genetic resource pool required to increase cultivar yield [1]. Globally, a lot of people rely on plants during periods of severe food shortages following the occurrence of challenges like drought and inadequate harvests because of these essential characteristics, especially in developing nations. Women who are unemployed and live in rural or urban regions are more likely to prepare meals for their families, thus, when there is a decrease in household income, they are more likely to return to using WEPs [6, 7].

In recent years, WFPs has become a research priority for many ethnobotanists, owing to a worldwide interest in documenting ethnobotanical information about neglected WEPs sources [8]. In order to preserve traditional knowledge regarding WFPs for future generations, it is crucial to support research on these plants, as plant biodiversity loss and the cultural adaptation of indigenous peoples threaten this knowledge [9,10,11,12,13]. Numerous studies carried out in mountainous regions over the past 20 years [14, 15] have shown that those places frequently serve as reservoirs for local flora that are disappearing and are important for food security. Other factors have also significantly influenced this legacy in addition to industrialization and globalization, for example, the homogenizing effect of centralization in former Soviet lands has negatively impacted local knowledge related to plants [16]. WFPs have served as an essential part of human diets throughout human history. The modern agricultural revolution, urbanization, and globalization have caused human populations to move farther away from their natural surroundings. Food security is now under risk due to the disappearance of wild edible plants and agricultural practices [17].

A double burden of malnutrition, a shortfall in calories (hunger), is being faced by humanity as the world's population approaches 10 billion by 2050 [18,19,20]. Global food production must rise in order to meet these challenges, this cannot be done by merely expanding industrial agriculture by converting land, which would harm the environment and contribute to the already declining biodiversity [21, 22]. This is a challenging scenario because, in order to enable the delivery of other goods and ecosystem services that are both directly and indirectly essential to human well-being, it is necessary to assure the sustainable production of healthy food while safeguarding biodiversity. Additionally, in order to prevent disruptions to food production and people's livelihoods caused by climate change, it is important that social adaptation be facilitated [23,24,25].

An assessment of the current distribution and conservation status of food resources has become urgent to inform science-based policy making, since most analyses lack information on the entire range of food resources consumed worldwide and because global biodiversity is rapidly declining, which limits our ability to find new food sources [26]. Furthermore, protecting food diversity and related Traditional Knowledge (TK) has become a global priority. This is because climate change has had detrimental effects on biodiversity, agricultural output, and food security [27, 28].

Wild food plants (WFPs) have been a vital source of food for people since ancient times, but their relevance in the human diet has declined, first with agricultural development and then more severely with urbanization and industrialization processes [29]. Whereas the complex body of knowledge, understandings, practices, and beliefs that human civilizations established in inextricably linked relationships with their natural setting and that is dynamic and evolving together with social and ecological changes is known as local/traditional ecological knowledge (LEK/TEK) [30]. We think that environmental foodscapes (agroecosystems where foods are generated), culinary techniques and skills, regional recipes, and the social settings around food consumption across a community are all connected to traditional/local food knowledge (LFK). In the past few years, ethnobiologists have compiled knowledge on gathering and utilizing WFPs in various parts of the world [31,32,33], and with the goal of offering practical resources for promoting rural development that is sustainable or, in certain cases, even for enhancing food security [34,35,36,37].

Pakistan is the sixth most populated country in the world and has a lower middle-class income and approximately 60% of the country's population experiences food insecurity [38], and it continuing to be the 11th most food insecure nation worldwide [39]. Despite the richness of natural resources in Pakistan, this country still faces a food deficit. A report on the global hunger index (GHI) states that the country is dealing with severe problems related to food security [31]. Natural resources are being lost in the Himalayan region as a result of a number of biophysical and social issues in recent years [40]. This has led to a notable reduction in food yield as well as a major loss of ecosystem services, namely in the areas of biomass, water, and soil nutrients [32].

The historic state of Jammu and Kashmir is renowned for its rich plant diversity because of its variations in topography, elevation, and geography [41,42,43]. In this prospective area of traditional knowledge, there are many different ethnic communities [41, 44] who rely heavily on small-scale pastoralist and horticultural activities and have a strong connection to natural resources for their livelihood. Kashmir is distinguished by its distinct food preparation, languages, clothing, festivals, customs, and communities. Food serves as a primary identification marker, identifying relationships, socioeconomic classes, personalities, and ethnic groups or nationalities, all of which vary over time and space. It is a clear statement of cultural values [45]. Different ethnic communities in Kashmir have distinctive cultural representations [46]. Different plants are used by each of these ethnic groups in their traditional foods.

Documentation of WFPs in the context of the ethnic group and ecological zones of the study area can effectively illustrate the impact of cultural traditions. Furthermore, many ethnobotanical studies have been done to record the dynamics of medicinal plant utilization [14, 41, 42, 47,48,49,50,51,52,53], but with no specific large-scale regional study among various ethnic groups with respect to different ecological zones, focusing on WFPs in Pakistan's Kashmir Western Himalaya. The term Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) refers to practical ecological knowledge. This encompasses the knowledge held and utilized by indigenous people with a long history of resource use, as well as non-indigenous natural resource users [54]. The seven ethnic groups chosen for this study are prominent consumers of WFPs in their everyday lives. They live in a range of ecological zones within the study area, from subtropical to alpine regions, and integrate various plants into their traditional practices. Consequently, their inclusion ensures a thorough representation of WFPs usage across diverse groups and ecological zones. This selection offers an accurate and comprehensive insight into how different communities engage with and rely on these plants, highlighting the actual diversity and importance of WFPs in the region. The primary goal of this study was to document local ecological knowledge about WFPs in order to provide stakeholders with a potentially helpful baseline of data for revitalizing them. The study aimed to: (a) to document traditional WFPs and their associated folk cuisines in the Kashmir Himalayan Region, (b) to evaluate the ecological distribution in various ecological zones and perceived threats to these WFPs, (c) to conduct a cross-cultural comparison among the selected ethnic communities, and (d) to compare the findings with previously reported ethnobotanical literature.

Materials and methods

Study area

Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) is a region in the western Himalayas and is situated between 33°54ʹ-34° 44ʹ North latitude and 73° 31ʹ-74° 50ʹ East longitude [41, 42]. It has a border with the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, which is divided by the Line of Control. The state's topography is rugged and mountainous, with forested mountain sides and deep valleys cut by various streams and rivers. Azad Jammu and Kashmiris a biodiversity hotspot with diverse agro climatic zones and ecosystems due to a large altitudinal gradient extending from 360 m in the southern Punjab Plains to 6325 m in the north [15, 55]. There are various breathtaking landscapes around the country, showcasing the allure of tumbling rivers, winding streams, and dense woods with glittering flora. A field survey was conducted in three districts of Kashmir: Muzaffarabad, Neelum Valley, and Jhelum Valley. The target region comprises of subtropical forests and alpine meadows with elevations ranging from 971 to 4229 m (Fig. 1). The research area's environment is extreme cold throughout the winter season, with significant snowfall and freezing temperatures as low as -10 °C between November and April. During the summer months of June to August, the average temperature is around 10 °C, however the season is cold and brief. The area receives approximately 1000 mm of precipitation each year, the most of which arrives as snow in winter [14, 42, 47].

Fig. 1
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A map showing the location of the study sites from Kashmir, Western Himalaya

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Ethnographic and socio-economic variables of AJK

The region's ethnic composition is wide and complex, including Syed, Awan, Rajgan, Khawaja, Gujjar, Bakarwal, and Mughal. Gujjar tribes are distributed throughout the region, with the Syed and Rajgan tribes being the most influential ethnic groups in Division Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir. Almost all of the residents are Muslims. Popular languages include Hindko, Gojri, Pahari, and Kashmiri, but a majority are also proficient with Urdu [41]. The majority of the research region is remote, with tough mountainous terrain and a long distance from urban areas. Local residents live in poverty, lack government services, and do not have access to modern healthcare facilities. The roadways and other infrastructure are in poor condition, and many residents are engaged in agriculture, cattle, and their own small businesses. Some are educated and work for the government, while a small number serve abroad. Agriculture is mostly dependent on rain-fed agricultural techniques, with maize being the primary crop in the region. Basic health services are mostly supplied by a few public health dispensaries in the region, but residents at higher altitudes have restricted access to them and rely heavily on herbal medicines to treat most ailments and for nourishment. Elders and health practitioners possess the majority of indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge [43, 52, 56, 57]. The bulk of the population lives in rural areas, where agriculture and cattle are the primary sources of income. Domestic animal holding among inhabitants of these communities indicates a higher socioeconomic status within a family [15]. Tourism has significantly helped the region's socioeconomic conditions by creating employment opportunities for local people.

Data collection

In the study area, villages and summer pastures were selected using the multistage random selection approach described in the method [58]. The 20 villages and summer pastures selected from the study area included Narri Syedan, Khujytrar, Bheri, Pthyali, Noseri, Ratti Galli, Peer Hashimar, Peer Chenasi, Taobutt, Gujjar Nar, Leswa, Shounthar, Surgan, Baboon, Halamt, Kandoor, Ledra Mali, Sanae Behak, Brithhwar, and Nogran. Between April 2022 and November 2023, field trips were organized to visit each village and summer pasture. Surveys were conducted in the subtropical and temperate zones from April to June each year, spanning a total of 6 months. For the upper temperate to alpine zones, surveys were carried out from July to September, also covering a total of 6 months. Additionally, WEFPs were collected from various zones during the winter season from October to November each year, amounting to a total of 4 months. Ethnic groups typically gather WFPs from their surroundings as part of their daily diet. The majority of these groups collect WFPs from temperate forests, as well as from subtropical, subalpine, and alpine zones. In the study area, they mainly harvest WFPs during the summer season near their settlements. While some ethnic groups transport wild plants to their gardens, in the alpine zone, local people harvest WFPs directly from their natural habitats, rather than from gardens like those in the temperate and subtropical zones. Interviews have been conducted in accordance with the codes of ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology and the American Anthropological Association [59, 60]. The study included 321 informants (Table 1, Fig. 2). 75.38% of participants were men, while 24.61% were women. The discussions were carried out in the local languages (Hindko, Pahari, and Gojri) in order to facilitate interaction with the local informants. Participants were asked about the local names, collection seasons, parts used, mode of utilization, recipes, major threats to each species, and the selling or marketing of the WFPs species they have previously obtained and are still collecting [41, 61]. Each interviewee was told verbally that the data acquired would be publicized and shared across the globe, which could benefit them by generating global interest in their traditional knowledge and utilization of food plants, as well as the flora they associate with. The participants represented seven different ethnic groups: Syed, Awan, Rajgan, Khawaja, Gujjar, Bakarwal, and Mughal. Most of the informants were above the age of 35 and below 70 years old. Threats to WFPs are primarily caused by natural and anthropogenic factors. Data on the sustainability and long-term existence of WFPs was gathered from the field, where respondents were asked to provide information on potential threats in the study area. Consequently, we collected data on WFP threats through surveys conducted using the group discussion method. During field trips and data collection, we observed that not all plants were in the flowering or fruiting stages. In these instances, we still collected data and revisited the same location during different flowering and fruiting seasons to collect plant specimens. Most of the informants were illiterate. Additionally, these participants had extensive expertise and knowledge of the wide range and utilization of WFPs plants in the study area. All plant specimens were identified by Prof. Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad using the available literature from the Flora of Pakistan (www.efloraofpakistan.com). The plant names were then cross-checked using World Online Flora (www.worldonlineflora.com).

Table 1 Demographic information of the study area, including stay duration, altitude, ethnicity, religion, occupation, and language
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Fig. 2
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Interviews and group discussions with different ethnic groups, where a interview with Bakarwal ethnic group (men), b interview with Mughal ethnic group, c interview with Bakarwal ethnic group (women), d interview with Gujjar ethnic group, e group discussion with the local inhabitants, and f group discussion with the local inhabitants of various ethnic groups to record the variations among the collected data

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Classification of wild food plants based on mode of consumption

All WFPs were classified into several food categories based on their mode of consumption, as per Thakur et al. [62]. Plants such as Amaranthus viridius, Malva parviflora, Chenopodium album, Nasturtium officinale, Phytolacca latbenia, Plantago major, and Pteridium aquilinum were classified as vegetables. Some species, such as Fragaria nubicola, Gaultheria trichophylla, and Pyrus pashia, were classified as fruits, and they were eaten raw. Another category of plants included Zanthoxylum armatum, Mentha longifolia, and Juglens regia, which are used to make sauces, salads, and chutneys. Herbal tea is a beverage made by steeping herbs, flowers, roots, or other plant materials in hot water, whereas herbal drinks are created by using natural substances derived from different parts of plants, such as leaves, stems, roots, fruits, buds, and flowers [63]. Some plants are categorized as herbal teas based on how they are consumed, such as Abies pindrow, Arnebia benthamii, and Bistorta amplexicaulis. There are also other plants that are classified as herbal drinks, including Mentha longifolia, Plantago lanceolata, and Plectranthus rugosus.

Jaccard index (JI)

To find similarities or resemblances between indigenous traditional knowledge data and prior ethnobotanical research undertaken in multiple areas of the Himalayas [64], the JI is calculated using the formula:

$$JI \, = \, C * 100/ \, \left( {A \, + \, B} \right) \, - \, C$$

where "A" represents the recorded species in the present investigation, "B" represents the recorded species in the other area to be compared, and "C" represents the number of species identified in both studies.

Data analysis

Principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted to analyze the threats and plant utilized. The `factoextra` package in R was employed to generate PCA biplots, contribution plots, and eigenvalues, which represent the variance explained by each principal component (Oksanen et al., 2013). A chord diagram illustrating the relationships between modes of preparation, and species was created using Origin Pro software (version 10). For showing the presence and absence of plants in different ethnic groups a Polar heat map was created in R. To visualize the plants across different ecological zones, a Venn diagram was constructed using Bioinformatics & Evolutionary Genomics software (available at http://bioinformatics.psb.ugent.be/cgi-bin/liste/Venn/calculate_venn.htpl) [65].

Results

WFPs and their taxonomic diversity

Overall, 113 folk taxa belonging to 74 genera and 41 botanical families were recorded. A high proportion of these WFPs belong to the Polygonaceae and Rosaceae (17 species each), followed by Lamiaceae (7 species), Asteraceae (5 species), Fabaceae and Solanaceae (4 species each), Plantaginaceae, Moraceae, Poaceae, Malvaceae, Dryopteridaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Berberidaceae, and Amaranthaceae (3 species each) (Fig. 3). The most dominant WFP categories were vegetables (47 species), fruits (40 species), herbal teas (12 species), herbal drinks (9 species), cereal crops (5 species), pickle (chutneys) and sauces (4 species), miscellaneous (3 species), and salad, spice, and condiments (2 species each). Indigenous peoples gathered these species for both their own and their animals' dietary needs (Table 2).

Fig. 3
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Alluvial diagram representing the floristic composition of WFPs

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Table 2 WFPs based on nutritional values and economic uses by various ethnic groups from Kashmir Himalayas
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Growth form of the WFPs

The growth form results indicated that the majority of WEFPs are classified into three major categories, such as herbs, trees, and shrubs (Table 2).

Plant parts use

The results of the plant parts used revealed that leaves were identified as the most commonly utilized plant part, accounting for 41.04%. This was followed by fruit (33.33%), aerial parts (10.26%), rhizome (7.69%), bark (2.56%), grains (2.56%), beans (1.71%), seeds (1.71%), the whole plant (1.71%), nut (0.85%), root (0.85%), stem (0.85%), and tuber (0.85%) (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
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a Percentage of WFPs used among the studied 7 ethnic groups, b chord diagram depicting the plant parts used and species names as WFPs

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Mode of consumption

Most of the species are consumed as cooked (46.46%), followed by raw snacks (37.80%), water-boiled (7.87%), decoctions (3.94%), and infusions (3.94%) (Fig. 5, Table 2).

Fig. 5
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a Percentage of WFPs mode of consumption among studied ethnic groups, b chord diagram depicting the WFPs mode of consumption

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WFPs used as vegetable

Wild plant species were consumed in different ecological zones of the Kashmir Himalayas during times of food scarcity. Younger parts of plants, such as roots, stems, and leaves, were used in traditional recipes. These plant parts were fried in oil with tomatoes, onion, ginger, and spices, and cooked as vegetables, either alone or in combination with other species. The leaves of the most popular species cooked as vegetables by local participants included Amaranthus retroflexus, A. spinosus, A. viridius, Chenopodium album, C. murale, C. botrys, Cucurbita maxima, Malva parviflora, M. sylvestris, Nasturtium officinale, Oxalis corniculata, Plantago major, Polygonum plebeium, Pteridium aquilinum, Solanum tuberosum, and Rumex nepalensis. The species that were dried and stored for the future during the snow periods in the rural mountainous communities included Amaranthus viridis, Phytolacca latbenia, Chenopodium album, Pteridium aquilinum, Dryopteris stewartii, and Amaranthus spinosus. Amaranthus viridis, Chenopodium album, Rumex nepalensis, and Polygonum plebeium were the most commonly used species among the inhabitants of subtropical to alpine local communities in the study area and were thought to be digestive. Their long growing season, wide availability, and distinct flavor make vegetable plants one of the most popular choices among various ethnic groups. Pteridium aquilinum, Malva parviflora, Malva sylvestris, Phytolacca latbenia, Oxalis corniculata, and Dryopteris stewartii are the wild vegetables that are only used among the mountainous and rural communities of temperate to alpine summer pastures. Rumex nepalensis, Trifolium repens, and Taraxecum officinale are the wild vegetable species that were utilized throughout the study area. From March to November, local populations gathered the plant from agriculture fields, scrubland, dry places, shady places, lakes, and summer pastures. The locals of subtropical and temperate zones start to consume vegetables in early March and almost continuously utilize them until November, but on the other hand, subalpine and alpine communities utilize different available wild vegetables from June to October due to snow cover until June and then return to their permanent lower altitude residencies in the months of September to October due to the start of severe coldness and early snowfall in the last weeks of October and early weeks of November. The most common wild vegetables that are available in the market for sale include Dryopteris stewartii, Dryopteris ramosa, Amaranthus viridis, Cucurbita maxima, and Solanum tuberosum (Table 2).

WFPs used as fruits

Sweet fruits were used as raw snacks by indigenous communities, particularly those who lived a herding lifestyle. A total of 40 WFPs were collected and eaten as fruits. The most important wild fruit species were Pyrus pashia, Pyrus communis, Prunus armeniaca, Punica granatum, Diospyros lotus, Ficus palmata, Berberis lyceum, Elaeagnus umbellata, Fragaria nubicola, Malus pumila, Punica granatum, Rubus fruticosus, and Viburnum grandiflorum. Malus pumila, Pyrus communis, and Prunus armeniaca were the most common fruit plant species that were collected and utilized almost among the majority of the ethnic groups, and these three species are also available in the market for sale. Some species are restricted to specific ethnic groups or ecological zones, like Gaultheria trichophylla, which is only utilized among the Bakarwal ethnic group, and Malvastrum coromandelianum, which is consumed only in the subtropical zone of the study area (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6
figure 6

a V. vinifera, b P. communis, c R. brunonii, d S. nigrum, e B. lyceum, f V. grandiflorum, g R. sanctus, h D. lotus, i P. pashia, j D. indica, k M. alba, l C. microphyllus, m B. kashmirana, n T. wallichiana, o P. hexandrum, p F. nubicola

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Herbal teas and herbal drinks

In our study species, 21 taxa have been used to prepare drinks such as herbal teas, coffees, decoctions, and herbal drinks. The bark of Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, and Taxus wallichiana is initially removed, and then the inner soft portion is soaked in water briefly before being boiled to make herbal teas. To improve the taste, sugar is added in proportion to the amount of water. The rhizome of some plants, such as Bistorta amplexicaulis, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium wallichianum, and Bergenia ciliata, is boiled in water for 15–25 min, then, with the addition of milk and sugar, taken as an herbal tea. Locals use herbal teas to stay fit and healthy because people in mountainous areas are mostly involved in laborious occupations and coping with the fundamental necessities of life, such as farming and agriculture. After agricultural practices, folks like to drink herbal teas to relieve fatigue. The leaves of Adiantum capillus-veneris are crushed in water with a pestle then kept overnight. Locals drink that greenish water early in the morning as an herbal drink before breakfast to relieve a variety of digestive problems. Leaves and aerial parts of some other plant species, like Ajuga integrifolia, Mentha longifolia, Mentha arvensis, Mentha spicata, and Plectranthus rugosus, are ground in water, then plant material is removed, and the remaining water is taken as an herbal drink. Indigenous communities in the study area use wild plants as herbal drinks to overcome gastrointestinal disorders and to make themselves healthier and more attractive.

Species used for sauces and chutneys

According to informants, chutney is made from just four species. Among the plant species used to make sauces and chutneys were Mentha arvensis, Mentha spicata, Zanthoxylum armatum, and Juglans regia. It's interesting to note that all of these species were used both fresh and dried, and they are all aromatic. In order to use these species throughout the year, the locals shade-dried them during the suitable seasons (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7
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a Percentage of WFPs food category distribution among studied ethnic groups; b chord diagram depicting the WFPs food category

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Storage and uses of WFPs during off-seasons

The storing and drying of WFPs is a vital task that offers stability to the food supply throughout year. Local ethnic groups in the area dry vegetables during the summer season, either by leaving them at room temperature or by exposing them to direct sunlight. This is mainly due to the region's hilly terrain and the presence of snow during the winter season, which makes it difficult for local residents to access markets and purchase fresh vegetables. Consequently, these ethnic groups rely on these dried vegetables for sustenance in such circumstances. In the study area, a number of plants were used during off-Seasons, such as the aerial parts of Dryopteris stewartii, Dryopteris ramosa, Amaranthus viridis, Pteridium aquilinum, Phytolacca latbenia, Chenopodium album, and Amaranthus spinosus. Traditional communities collect Allium humile and Allium carolinianum leaves, which are then used by locals to make local spices or masala. Pyrus pashia, Pyrus communus, Prunus armeniaca, Punica granatum, Diospyros lotus, and Ficus palmata (Anjeer) fruits were dried and utilized during the winter season. Some plant species, such as Thymus linearis, Taxus wallichiana, and Bistorta amplexicaulis, were collected from summer pastures and used by local communities in winter as herbal teas. Traditional communities used Punica granatum seeds in sauces and chutneys during off seasons.

Market value of WFPs

To determine the market value of WFPs, we surveyed a local market and a central market, i.e., Muzaffarabad and Neelum. We observed that Triticum aestivum (Gandum), Juglans regia (Khor), Malus pumila (Syb), Bergenia ciliata (Butpywa), and Thymus linearis (Chikal) are some of the most important edible plants that are on sale in the market for different purposes. The market survey also showed that the current prices vary depending on the quality. Some current pricing for wild edible plants vary by area due to transportation costs for transporting wild edible food plants from one place to another. Triticum aestivum (150–250 Pkr. per kg), Juglans regia (200–600 Pkr. per kg), Malus pumila (150–400 Pkr. per kg), Bergenia ciliata (600–1000 Pkr. per kg), and Thymus linearis (1000–2000 Pkr. per kg) are sold in various markets of the division Muzaffarabad, including the Madina market in Muzaffarabad. Our results further demonstrated that Arnebia benthamii (Gaozuban), Phaseolus vulgaris (Lobia), Saussurea costus (Kuth), Solanum tuberosum (Aalo), Zea mays (Makaye), and Oryza sativa (Chawal) are highly known edible plant species by all age groups for their socio-economic implications. From all 113 studied species, 37 (32.74%) are available on the market for sale, while 76 (62.25%) are still unavailable. So, from the local perceptions of the indigenous communities, we can also promote the sale of these species that are unavailable in the market to overcome the food insecurity in developing countries as well as to uplift the socioeconomic conditions of rural communities.

Traditional cuisine recipes of WFPs

Different recipes for preparing WFPs were recorded. Locals used WFPs in a variety of ways, and knowledge of these species and their eating habits was passed down through generations. Depending on the type of plant, several methods were utilized to prepare wild edibles. Small portions of wild vegetables were sliced into pieces and boiled in water.

The raw material was boiled before being fried in butter or oil along with tomato, ginger, onion, garlic, and green chilly to make cooked food. The wild vegetables that were boiled in water and cooked in oil included Dryopteris stewartii, Dryopteris ramosa, Amaranthus retroflexus, Amaranthus spinosus, Amaranthus viridius, Chenopodium album, Chenopodium murale, Chenopodium botrys, Cucurbita maxima, Malva parviflora, Malva sylvestris, Nasturtium officinale, Oxalis corniculata, Plantago major, Polygonum plebeium, Pteridium aquilinum, Solanum tuberosum, and Rumex nepalensis. The most common traditional dish was saag, which was made by cooking various vegetables' green leaves. Saag's main ingredients were Amaranthus viridius, Chenopodium album, Plantago major, and Polygonum plebeium, which were boiled in water before being cooked. To prepare traditional saag, their paste was fried in oil or butter with tomato, onion, ginger, garlic, and green chilli, along with spices. On major events and special days, saag was served with maize flour-based bread, lassi (yoghurt drink), and chutney. Another important traditional vegetable known as Katha Saag was prepared specifically by using some specific vegetables, including Dryopteris stewartii, Dryopteris ramosa, and Ficus palmata, in such a way that these plant species were first boiled in lassi (yoghurt drink) for about 30–45 min, then fried in oil or butter with tomato, onion, ginger, garlic, and green chilli, along with spices. This special Katha Saag was mostly utilized along with maize flour-based bread in dysi ghee (animal’s butter), lassi, and chutney. Another important local food called Sheera was made by combining maize flour with lassi (yoghurt drink) and dysi ghee (animal butter). Sheera is prepared in such a way that the locals first boil lassi (yoghurt drink) in a kitchen pot at a low temperature for 20–30 min, then add a relevant proportion of maize flour, followed by the addition of dysi ghee (animal butter), and then enjoy eating Sheera with the whole family. Chalithi was another traditional food that was mostly used by women after childbirth, almost for a month after childbirth. This food is used with a combination of some other local foods at regular intervals. The method of preparation of Chalithi was that it was prepared in such a way that first of all, rice was ground with the help of a of a pistle, then soaked for 20–30 min, then fried into dysi ghee (animal butter) at a specific temperature. Then, some kernels of Juglens regia, coconut, raisins, and some other dry fruits were added to enhance the taste.

Another traditional rice dish (Phatt) was prepared with the combination root of Saussurea costus and local rice in such a way that first of all, the locals wash and clean the rhizome properly, and then it is kept for boiling for 25–40 min. After a proper boil, they add rice to the boiling water, and then after 20–30 min, the locals add dysi ghee (animal butter), and then they enjoy this local food with the whole family. This traditional food was mostly used to overcome the joint problems among the mountainous local communities of the temperate-alpine zone. Recently, the trend of this traditional dish has decreased day by day. Another most popular traditional food among the Gujjar and Bakarwal ethnic groups was the Klaari. The method of preparation of Klaari was that it was prepared with the combination of milk from buffaloes and lassi (yoghurt drink) from cows boiled together for 10–15 min, then cooled and taken as food. The trend of food is also very rare; mostly locals prepare it during their short stay of 2–3 months in summer pastures or alpine meadows. Another most rarely used food was the Anch. This traditional food was prepared with a combination of milk from goats and lassi (yoghurt drink) from buffaloes. This traditional food is prepared and used the same as in Klaari. The most interesting local food, as indicated by the name Moti Roti, was used among the rural communities of Neelum Valley among different ethnic groups. This was prepared in such a way that during kneading the flour, local women kept the flour a little bit hard and then added animal butter, eggs, sugar, or salt. They then cooked that fresh material in the form of bread and took it with the herbal tea that was made from the rhizome of Bistorta amplexicaulis. Another very interesting local food is Dary-Behshat. This local cuisine was prepared in such a way that the locals kept the desired quantity of animal butter in a kettle or a boiler, added corn flour, fried it a little bit, added about 200–250 g of jaggery, and then again fried it. After that, locals can also add some dry fruits, and then local women wash their hands with water and make circular bread to eat. Bagori was another traditional local food that was used by the Loan ethnic group of the study area. Bagori was prepared in such a way that first local women boiled the lassi (yoghurt drink), then they kept that boiled lassi in a white cloth and squeezed that cloth in such a way that water (pang) from the lassi ran away, and then the remaining hard portion of lassi was kept in between two weighted stones and kept there for 1–2 days, and then again brought out from the stones and kept in sunlight to further dry, and then they utilized it as a delicious food.

Ul-Tiki was a traditional food that was recorded from the Shina-speaking linguistic and loan ethnic group of Phulawae. Ul-Tiki was prepared in such a way that during the process of milking from goats, buffaloes, or cows by indigenous women, they did the process of milking in a single milk vessel for about 15–20 times to store the milk froth on the surface of that particular milk vessel and store the bulk of fresh milk in another milk vessel. The locals collect a large quantity of milk froth from the inner surface of the milk vessel, and then they knead it in corn flour and pack it into the bark of Betula utilis under the warm ash for about 30–60 min, and finally they utilize it as food (Fig. 8). Many other cultural practices are associated with the local inhabitants of the study area (Fig. 9).

Fig. 8
figure 8

Different traditional dishes used among the rural communities of Kashmir Himalayas: a local green herbal tea; b mix vegetables; c freshly prepared corn flour bread (makahe ki roti) by local women; d sauce locally known as chutney; e butter locally known as dysi ghee; f chalithi; g lassi (yoghurt drink); h homogenizer used by the local women for lassi and ghee production from yoghurt; i local halwa; j corn flour bread with sauce and yoghurt drink; k local dysi variety of rice; and l preparation of corn flour bread from wooden fire to enhance the taste

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Fig. 9
figure 9

Different cultural practices among the ethnic groups: a traditional house in the summer pasture; b mat locally known as Phandi; c traditional Bakhari used mostly during the winter season; d tandoor; e carriage of dry grasses for livestock by a local farmer; and f ploughing in the farmland by a local farmer

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Ecological distribution of WFPs

This study investigated how WFPs were used in various ecological zones by seven different ethnic groups. These zones included subtropical, temperate, subalpine, and alpine. Interestingly, five plant species, namely Oxalis corniculata, Plantago major, Rumex nepalensis, Taraxacum officinale, and Trifolium repens, were found to be distributed across all the ecological zones that were investigated. This comprehensive analysis offers insight on the widespread availability and possible relevance of these plants under a variety of environmental conditions, emphasizing their importance in the diets and cultural practices of the area's ethnic groups. There were only four plant species that were restricted to the subtropical zone. These species were Zanthoxylum armatum, Rumex chalepensis, Polygonum paronychioides, and Malvastrum coromandelianum. There were 16 plant species that were only collected and restricted to temperate zones. These 16 plant species were Cichorium intybus, Elaeagnus umbellata, Fagopyrum dibotrys, Fagopyrum esculentum, Medicago polymorpha, Phaseolus vulgaris, Phytolacca latbenia, Prunus padus, Pteridium aquilinum, Rubus ulmifolius, Silene conoidea, Taxus wallichiana, Teucrium royleanum, Viburnum cotinifolium, and Vigna radiata. Only two plant species, Betula utilis and Rumex acetosa, were restricted and collected from the subalpine zone. There were six6 plant species that were restricted to alpine zone including Aconogonum alpiunm, Allium carolinianum, Arnebia benthamii, Bistorta affinis, and Gaultheria trichophylla (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10
figure 10

Ecological distribution of WFPs in different ecological zones

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Major threats

Anthropogenic and naturally occurring factors can be utilized for categorizing the causes of threats to WFPs. Climate change, agricultural expansion, fuel wood, deforestation, selective harvesting, overgrazing, debarking, overexploitation, fire, illegal export, soil erosion, invasive species, and lightning were among the natural and human-induced causes that the informants noted as local threats to WFPs. The ranking effort contributed in identifying the most serious threats to such resources in the study area. Climate change, invasive species, expansion of agriculture, and plant diseases are some of the most significant threats to WFPs in the study area. Some food plants illegally exported in the study area include Arnebia benthamii, Jurinea dolomiaea, and Saussurea costus, and these are also already declared endangered and critically endangered species. The members of the family Rosaceae, particularly fruit species, were facing the threat of plant diseases, according to the local respondents. Tree species such as Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, and Taxus wallichiana were facing threats of deforestation, and debarking for different purposes. People started fires, either intentionally or accidently, while looking for newly grown grass in the study area. According to respondents, invasive species were not common in the past, but their invasiveness is rising by the day, contributing to decreased yields of native crops and all other WFPs (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11
figure 11

PCA analysis showing the major threats to WFPs

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Cross ethnic comparison

Cross-cultural analysis of WFP gathering among the seven investigated ethnic groups reveals variability and the presence of distinct plant cultural markers. This study explored how people consume wild foods based on choice and cultural availability. Three species (Rumex nepalensis, Taraxecum officinale, and Trifolium repens) overlapped across all ethnic groups. Thirteen plant species overlapped across the 6 ethnic groups. Nine species were overlapped among the 5 ethnic groups. Nineteen plant species were overlapped across the 4 ethnic groups. Twenty-five species were overlapped among the different 3 ethnic groups. Twenty-three species were overlapped across the different 2 ethnic groups. The Gujjar ethnic group gathered and used a wide variety of indigenous plants, totaling 89 species. This was most likely driven by the investigated region's increasing population density, higher social contacts leading to more knowledge, and a move toward occupations closely related to wild food plants. The wide sociocultural differences identified among the ethnic groups analyzed, which differ across different geographical areas within the research area, may contribute to variations in how certain species are used, as reported.

Novelty index

The results of the current study were compared with 20 published articles, especially those focusing on WFPs from the region, as represented in Table 3. Cross-comparison showed that utilization of WFPs varies significantly across the region and communities, including their edible parts and mode of consumption. Jaccard index (JI) value ranged from 5.81 to 25 (Table 3). The highest value of JI was calculated for district Bagh, AJ&K (25.00), and district Neelum, AJ&K (23.40). Both districts located in the geographical boundary of AJ&K. Due to similar environmental conditions, traditions, and geography, the greater JI values showed similar kinds of vegetation in these areas. The lowest value of JI was calculated for Takhte-Sulaiman, Pakistan (5.81). The reported site is in an arid and semi-arid mountainous area with a warm environment, while the present site is in a cold climate representing a temperate to alpine zone. There is significant variation in environment, altitude, topography, and traditions throughout the study area. Only nine similar plants have been documented at the current site due to significant variation, as mentioned earlier.

Table 3 Jaccard index to compare the present study with the published literature of Himalayas show the Novelty aspect of current study
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The current study had a higher degree of similarity in edible part use compared to data from district Bagh, AJ&K (42.5%), followed by district Neelum, AJ&K (32.86%). This is mainly due to the similar geography and vegetation in these areas. The lowest similarity was found in the district of Mastung, Baluchistan (3.18%), followed by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, North-western Pakistan (3.41%), and the semi-arid region of Punjab, Pakistan (4.57%). The mode of utilization percentage compares how WFPs are used in various ways, such as cooked, sauces, raw, pickled, and sweet recipes, between current findings and previous research. The percentage of similarity in part and mode of utilization was higher in AJ&K than in other allied areas, mainly due to variations in traditions, cultures, geography, and environmental circumstances between the local communities. Furthermore, various communities in specific regions use the plants in different ways.

Currently, we have reported a variety of traditional food cuisines and wild food plants (WFPs) that have rarely been documented but make up a significant proportion of the local diet in the investigated area. These include vegetables such as Arenaria serpyllifolia, Fagopyrum dibotrys, Rumex vesicarius, Rumex hastatus, Rumex chalepensis, Polygonum paronychioides, Gagea elegans, Amaranthus retroflexus, and Chenopodium botrys. Fruits that are rarely documented are Berberis kashmirana, Cotoneaster microphyllus, Gaultheria trichophylla, Rosa brunonii, Vitis vinifera, Myrsine africana, Impatiens flemingii, Impatiens edgeworthii, and Prunus padus. Novel herbal teas in the region include Abies pindrow, Arnebia benthamii, Bergenia stracheyi, Betula utilis, Bistorta affinis, Geranium wallichianum, and Taxus wallichiana. Additionally, Plectranthus rugosus and Teucrium royleanum are rarely documented plants used to make herbal drinks. Vigna radiata is rarely documented as a bean, and Skimmia laureola is rarely documented as a condiment. It should be noted that there are several local traditional food cuisines in the region, such as Chalithi, Sheera, Katha Saag, Bagori, Klaari, Anch, Moti Roti, Dary-Behshat, Phatt, and Ul-Tiki, which are unique and have not been previously documented.

Discussion

WFPs and their taxonomic diversity

Our research focused on the role that WFPs play in maintaining a healthy food chain and promoting balanced nutrition in local communities residing in the Himalayan mountainous region of Kashmir. WFPs should play a crucial role in lowering the potential and high market price of farmed commodities. We observed that approximately half of the local population lives below the poverty line. Ethnic groups in the study area harvest a variety of WFPs from different ecological zones. However, for some ethnic groups, these WFPs are closely linked to their local traditions. The way they utilize and prepare these WFPs may differ from one ethnic group to another, depending on their preferred recipes and specific occasions. Therefore, the use of different WFPs among the investigated ethnic communities varies based on their unique cultural preferences. The results demonstrate that the majority of local communities sell veggies and WFPs in local markets to meet their basic necessities. Most people prefer WFPs over cultivated ones due to financial constraints [60]. A total of 113 WFPs were recorded from the study area. The inclusion of a diverse range of WFPs with varying habits, growth patterns, and useful parts in the nutritional repertoire emphasizes their acceptance and integration in food culture. The vast area and biocultural diversity in the region may explain why plant use is more diverse than in other regions [84]. The WFP diversity result showed that Polygonaceae and Rosaceae families were recorded as leading families, followed by Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, and Fabaceae. The members of these families showed broader ecological amplitude and adaptations and were mainly found in open habitat ecosystems [42]. The study area comprises four zones, including subtropical, temperate, subalpine, and alpine. So, members of the abovementioned plant families are most frequently utilized by local communities across the entire region due to their wide spread abundance. Our results are consistent with various studies in the region [42, 85, 86]. Growth form of WFPs results revealed that herbs were recorded as dominant, contributing 62.83%, followed by trees (18.58%), shrubs (12.39%), ferns (5.42%), and climbers (1.77%). The prevalence of herbs in the study area is mainly due to the extensive elevational gradient from 971 to 4229 m, whereas herbaceous vegetation increases along the elevational gradient [41, 87].

Presently, vegetables were observed as the most commonly used WFP category in the investigated area, with 47 species. The study found that the WFPs collected during the daily routine were substantially similar across all ethnic groups. All wild vegetables were mostly consumed in their early phases of growth, and the green leaves or aerial parts of the appropriate plant species were commonly used. The rapid social evolution of these settlements, including market access and economic reasons, may pose a significant challenge to environmental and natural resource sustainability[88]. Abbasi et al. [70] reported 45 wild vegetables from Lesser Himalayas. Generally, Kashmir region considered as biodiversity hotspot due to diverse array of agroclimatic zones and habitats with extensive elevational gradient from subtropic to alpine zone. These circumstances support the greater diversity of WFPs in the region. In comparison with the arid and semi-arid regions of Pakistan, Waheed et al. [80] reported 35 wild species from Punjab, whereas Aziz et al. [86] reported 21 species from Gilgit Baltistan. These areas exhibited severe environmental conditions and vegetation differences, which account for the low wild vegetable diversity as compared to the current study area. The most frequently consumed wild vegetables reported by ethnic groups are Amaranthus retroflexus, Amaranthus spinosus, Amaranthus viridius, Chenopodium album, Chenopodium murale, Chenopodium botrys, Cucurbita maxima, Malva parviflora, Malva sylvestris, Nasturtium officinale, and Oxalis corniculata. The average and total cultural importance of WFPs gathered diverse contexts emphasizes of gathering environment over the number of species [89]. The variation in wild vegetables across the region might be due to limited access to conventional food. Furthermore, various factors, such as climatic conditions, the availability of wild vegetables, and ethnography, are the main factors that influence the usage pattern of wild vegetables among the diverse ethnic communities of the region. Humans have relied on wild plants for their food and health needs since ancient times. This is supported by scientific evidence that shows how ancient peoples utilized these plants to sustain themselves [90]. Traditional communities use wild vegetables to combat food security as well as medicine for the treatment of various diseases, indicating a relationship between medicinal and edible plants [91].

Fruits were recorded as second most dominant consumed WFPs category accounts for 35.40% among the ethnic communities of Kashmir region. We observed that ethnic groups harvested fruits from surrounding forests, alpine pastures, and gardens mostly during the spring season and consumed them as a raw snack. Ethnobotanical studies by Luczaj et al. [92] and Pieroni et al. [93] suggest that raw snacks may have originated during the evolution of mobile pastoralism, making them an interesting phenomenon of food anthropology. The most commonly utilized snacks plant mentioned by all ethnic groups were Pyrus pashia, Pyrus communus, Prunus armeniaca, Punica granatum, Diospyros lotus, Ficus palmata, Berberis lyceum, Elaeagnus umbellata, Fragaria nubicola, Malus pumila, Punica granatum, Rubus fruticosus, and Viburnum grandiflorum. Wild fruits are generally eaten raw as compared to cultivated ones since they are known to have a high fiber content, a high vitamin concentration, and a great variety of secondary metabolites [73]. The current study results showed greater number of fruits as compared to other studies. Likewise, Waheed et al. [80] reported 25 wild fruits from Punjab, and Abdullah et al. [60] reported 24 species from the Hindu Kush Mountains range in Pakistan. In comparison with the study area, these areas have harsh environmental conditions, like less annual rainfall and lower wild fruit diversity. On the other hand, Ahmad and Pieroni [36] reported 31 fruits from Takhte-Sulaiman Hills, Pakistan. Based on availability, climatic conditions, traditional knowledge, and nutritional value, we hypothesize that the variety, distribution, and consumption of wild fruits differ by region.

We reported 21 taxa have been used to prepare drinks such as herbal teas, coffees, decoctions, and cold drinks. Herbal teas are infusions produced from plant leaves, seeds, or roots with hot water. They are often used for their medicinal and energizing effects, including relaxation [94, 95]. Results revealed that bark (Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, Taxus wallichiana) and rhizome (Bistorta amplexicaulis, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium wallichianum, Bergenia ciliata) are often used by ethnic communities to make herbal drinks. Herbal teas frequently have immune-boosting and purging qualities, and they can aid with stomach-related problems [56, 96]. Different herbs may have particular therapeutic benefits, herbal teas, for example, are well recognized for their calming effects and ability to decrease blood pressure [81, 94]. We also reported that leaf or aerial parts (Ajuga integrifolia, Mentha longifolia, Mentha arvensis, Mentha spicata, Plectranthus rugosus) were used for the preparation of herbal drinks. Wild gathering is the primary source of therapeutic plants used in the herbal medication industry and by ethnic communities [78]. Herbal drinks are valued greatly, primarily for their medicinal applications [97].

Our study results demonstrate that various plant species are used as flavoring agents (condiments). In the study area, ethnic groups used this traditional method that some species used as condiments to enhance the taste of traditional food dishes. Additionally, informants tell us that the younger generation is not interested in the harvesting of plants as condiments due to the availability of some condiments in the local market. So, a declining trend was observed in retaining traditional ecological knowledge in younger generations compared to older generations. The most commonly utilized species as favoring agents (conditions) are Mentha arvensis, Mentha spicata, Zanthoxylum armatum, and Juglans regia. Various researchers also reported that these species are used as flavoring agents in traditional cuisine systems in different areas of Pakistan [60, 80, 86].

Cross-culture analysis

Cross-culture analysis of WFPs among the seven investigated ethnic community’s revealed significant variation in plant consumption patterns. Ethnic communities consume plants based on the availability of WFPs in various regions of the study area. Gujjar ethic communities used majority of plants solely by them and not by other six ethnic groups. Gujjars, also referred to as a nomadic community, migrate to lower regions in the winter and move with their livestock to higher mountainous regions in the summer, allowing them to live in close proximity to nature. Furthermore, they are dedicated to shepherding in the high mountain meadows. As a result, the Gujjar and Bakarwal community consumes more WFPs, as they lack permanent settlements and spend much of their lives with cattle in the forest and pastures, harvesting and using WFPs on a daily basis [42]. They have a wealth of knowledge about WFPs, which they successfully transfer to the next generation. Compared to other communities, the Gujjars have a thorough awareness of WFPs and traditional recipes, whereas most others rely primarily on market-based plants. The Gujjar community is strictly endogamic and therefore socio-culturally isolated from other communities, which might have deterred them from exchanging TEK of WFPs with their neighbors. A similar kind of result has been reported in various studies where endogamic communities preserved the TEK of WFPs [86, 98]. The second-most notable group in terms of using wild food plants (WFPs) was the Bakarwal community. The majority of their time was spent shepherding in the alpine pastures. This group has a great deal of experience with high-altitude wild food plants in the alpine zone, and they often include these plants in their daily diet [99]. The peculiar ways that Bakarwal employ plants suggest that they are more knowledgeable about plants that grow in higher alpine regions and meadows, and their unique culinary ethnobotany may also be connected to their identity. Four ethnic communities, including Syed, Khawaja, Mughal, and Kashmiri, having similarities in WFPs consumption patterns, might be due to the prevalence of local Kashmir culture in the region, which in turn significantly impacted daily cultural practices, including TEK, among most ethnic groups. In terms of plant utilization, these ethnic communities are relatively similar, suggesting that native plant knowledge has spread horizontally among the various communities. Participants in the study confirmed that ethnic communities, including Khawaja, Mughal, and Kashmiri, led us to hypothesize that the sociocultural agreements between these groups are responsible for the traditional ecological knowledge of WFPs. According to reports, intermarriages between various groups, except the Syed group, that coexist in the same socio-ecological region are also necessary for the intimate sociocultural exchanges between them [88, 100]. Notably, in comparison with other ethnic groups, the Awan ethnic group, which lives in the lower parts of Kashmir, uses fewer wild food plants (WFPs). This group is mainly engaged in farming and harvests plants from their agricultural fields. Furthermore, the Awan community is primarily urban and, as a result of their contemporary way of life, significantly depends on food items that are sold in markets, such as fruits and vegetables. Some ethnic groups, on the other hand, who reside in higher alpine regions interact and use WFPs more frequently.

Major threats

Changes in land use, including infrastructure development, shifts in agricultural practices, and the conversion of forests to agricultural land, pose significant threats to wildlife and plant species (WFPs) in the Kashmir region. These threats are exacerbated by habitat destruction from activities such as soil erosion, overgrazing, fuelwood collection, forest fires, and excessive timber harvesting. Other factors, such as diseases, overharvesting, climate change, and invasive species, also contribute to the decline of WFPs in the area. Local communities in the mountainous region heavily rely on natural resources for their livelihoods. However, their excessive use of these resources puts them at risk of survival, as it depletes the availability of WFPs. Based on our findings, we have identified climate change, agricultural expansion, and fuelwood collection as the top threats to WFPs in the region. The limited job opportunities in the area force many ethnic communities to depend on natural resources to sustain their lives. This further intensifies the pressure on WFPs in the mountainous region. Some similar threats were also reported in the previously done studies [42, 101,102,103]. WFPs in the Kashmir Himalayas are being overexploited, endangering their long-term survival as a result of the need to increase staple crop yields and satisfy a variety of human demands. This problem is a result of overharvesting as well as a lack of understanding of the value of traditional ecological knowledge and WFPs in terms of nutrition, economy, society, and ecology.

Mitigating threats to WFPs needs a diversified approach. Sustainable agricultural techniques and reforestation practices improve overall ecosystem resilience, which helps in mitigating the effects of climate change. Natural ecosystems in the Kashmir region can be preserved by encouraging agroforestry and limiting agricultural growth. Deforestation should be strictly banned, as should sustainably harvesting policies, community-based conservation initiatives, and educating the local communities about alternate energy sources. WFPs populations are safeguarded by controlled grazing, controlled debarking, and the prevention of overexploitation through the strict implementation of laws. These natural resources are protected by fire control measures and export policy monitoring. Soil erosion can be reduced by practicing conservation agriculture and growing cover crops. Finally, invasive species can be managed by implementing strict biosecurity controls and restoring native species. For these measures to be effective, governments, non-governmental organizations, and local communities must work together.

WFPs and future food security

Like in other developing regions, the utilization of common pastures, rangelands, and forests, livestock keeping, and subsistence gardening were the primary sources of income in Kashmir mountainous regions. In the research region, wild food plants continue to play a significant role in the local food basket. Approximately one million of an estimated eight million animal and plant species are currently threatened with extinction. Climate change is causing severe repercussions in many countries, including prolonged droughts, harsher storms, heat waves, and wildfires. Climate change is causing rapid disruptions in biological systems, leading to biodiversity loss and degradation. Rapid land use changes impact the availability of wild foods, affecting smallholders' food and nutritional intake, notwithstanding their significant contribution to household food consumption globally. To prevent future food insecurity, it's critical to protect natural resources from exploitation. Stakeholders in the area should prioritize nutrition by reviewing local small-scale agriculture methods and biodiversity conservation strategies to improve wild food supply and food security. Wild food plants, which provide a significant portion of the local food system's food baskets in numerous human communities, are also under threat. Global changes have frequently affected local plant ecosystems, even in extremely remote locations across the world. The availability of plants has significantly declined in various geographical contexts as a result of human activities such as intensive farming techniques, population growth, overharvesting, and uncontrolled grazing. Monoculture agricultural practices negatively damage soil fertility and threaten the wild flora of the region [104]. The degradation of natural resources in Kashmir poses a significant threat to local food security, particularly for mountainous communities. Prioritizing sustainable growth requires valuing natural resources while incorporating traditional food traditions into local farming methods. Wild food resources cannot meet demand, but without them, the gap between supply and demand will be greater than expected. To enhance the importance of wild species, strategies for food security and biodiversity protection must be developed and a transition zone identified.

Revitalizing the traditional ecological knowledge

Traditional ecological knowledge is essential for human survival on the planet. In our study area, we observed that traditional food knowledge is being replaced by exotic knowledge across the Kashmir region. Traditional ecological practices are fading as a result of modern agriculture practices expanding across mountainous terrain. This could have a significant detrimental impact on future local food sovereignty and security. Furthermore, ethnic communities in Kashmir are gradually losing their local foraging methods due to socio-environmental change. Stallholders take some serious initiatives to preserve the traditional ecological knowledge of the Kashmir region and how this knowledge is transmitted to future generations. To strengthen the durability of TEK, it may be required to integrate it into the existing school curricula with traditional knowledge bearers. This could revitalize the TEK and raise awareness about the importance of preserving local natural resources and socio-ecological systems.

Local ecological Knowledge (LEK) about WFPs is disappearing or being replaced by non-native knowledge in the Kashmir region, posing a significant challenge. The conservation of cultural history and the sustainable use of the region's WFPs depend heavily on youth education. The sustainability of local practices is being threatened by the decline of traditional knowledge brought about by societal changes and reliance on standardized plant elements. The revitalization of LEK in educational programs is a collaborative effort including key stakeholders and local people to effectively convey cultural knowledge about WFPs. In our opinion, incorporating LEK into educational curricula will not only improve cultural and traditional cuisine preservation but also help the young generation understand science-based local ecological experiences. To strengthen the durability of LEK, it may be required to integrate it into the existing school curricula with traditional knowledge bearers. Globally, ethnobiologists advocate for dynamic frameworks that revive the LEK of WFPs and promote their application through holistic education [105, 106]. Revitalizing the LEK of WFPs is crucial for achieving socio-ecological sustainability. Ethnobiologists should be involved in the creation of culturally and ecologically relevant curricula in order to help curriculum designers and policymakers address the loss of local ecological knowledge (LEK). They should incentivize indigenous knowledge-bearers and work on reviving LEK through educational programs, maintaining it alongside contemporary science. LEK is essential for managing local habitats and resources, so promoting health-beneficial WFPs is an effective modern strategy. We advocate incorporating LEK into policy frameworks for future development, as traditional knowledge is critical to local ecosystems and economies. In order to accomplish sustainable development goals, policymakers should work with ethnobiologists to design policies that preserve and revitalize LEK and the local biocultural legacy through development and education initiatives [107].

Traditional ecological practices can mitigate future food security by addressing the issues within the communities instead from outside. Promoting sustainable rural development may benefit from reviving and elevating respect for the region's wild plant resources. Ecotourism in the region can help reduce social isolation and raise knowledge of indigenous food cultures, potentially preventing the future loss of TEK. It's possible that using TEK to design community-centered biocultural diversity conservation projects will produce better results than using conventional methods. To revitalize TEK among young community members, we suggest some strategies, which include study trips, traditional food day celebrations, developing WFP herbaria, and incorporating "food scouting" (ethnobiology-centered documentation of threatened local foods) into the school curriculum [108].

Conclusions

This study sheds light on the vital role of wild food plants (WFPs) in sustaining the diets and cultures of rural communities and indigenous tribes in the Kashmir Himalayan Region. By examining seven different ethnic groups, the research provides valuable insights into the use, preferences, and traditional ecological knowledge of WFPs. The study included 321 participants, with 75.38% men and 24.61% women. It reported a total of 113 plant species from 74 genera and 41 families. The most commonly occurring families were Polygonaceae and Rosaceae, each with 17 species. Leaves were used most frequently at 41.04%, followed by fruits at 33.33%. The consumption methods varied, with 46.46% of the plants being cooked and 37.80% consumed raw. Out of the 113 species, 47 were used as wild vegetables and 40 as fruits. Furthermore, this study explores information regarding the market potential and ecological distribution of WFPs in the region. Cross-comparison showed that utilization of WFPs varies significantly across the region and communities, including their edible parts and mode of consumption. This diversity is quantified using the Jaccard index, which ranges from 5.81 to 25, indicating distinct patterns of WFPs use among the studied groups. Furthermore, the study reveals the existence of 29 traditional wild food plants (WFPs) and 10 traditional food dishes that have not been previously reported in Pakistan. This emphasizes the importance of preserving and promoting this unique culinary heritage. Climate change, invasive species, agricultural expansion, and plant diseases emerge as major threats to the sustainability of WFPs in the region. To address these challenges, conservation policies must be implemented to safeguard WFPs and their associated practices for future generations. Furthermore, efforts to revitalize traditional foraging methods among younger generations are critical to preserving indigenous flora, food knowledge, and cultural history. Consequently, the conservation of the complex ethno-ecological cobwebs made by local WFPs, their ecologies, and attached cultural practices not only protect biodiversity but may also help provide food security and enhance the cultural heritage in the study area.