1 Introduction

Bullying is common among in-school adolescents and has been reported as a public health issue that can adversely affect victims of bullying across the lifespan [1]. Globally, more than 10% of students have reported experiencing bullying at least 2–3 times monthly in school [1]. Bullying is an intentional and repeated physical, verbal, electronic and emotional promotion of power over others [2]. Bullying victimisation is referred to as a situation in which a person or group of persons is/are continuously exposed to actions that are considered negative from an individual or a group of people on a defenceless person because of inequalities in power between the bully and the bullied [3]. According to Ash-Houchen and Lo [4], bullying victimisation can occur in-person (face-to-face) or on an online platform (e.g., using emails, text messaging, telephone calls) in various forms like harassing verbally by teasing and insulting, proactively devaluing others to protect a social position by spreading false information about the victim, excluding people socially in the context of complicated social connections (relational), and physical violence threats like pushing, hitting, slapping and kicking [5] with by-standers or onlookers having their share of the bullying experiences [6].

Existing evidence on bullying victimisation among male and female in-school adolescents across the globe indicates that in Australia, 1 out of every 7 adolescents experienced bullying by the first year (12 months) [7]. In comparison, 1 in every 4 adolescents complained about bullying across the lifespan [7]. Again, analysis of data obtained on adolescents from 83 countries between ages 12–17 years has shown a 30.5% occurrence rate of bullying victimisation, with Eastern Mediterranean and Africa recording 45.1 and 43.5%, respectively, while Europe recorded the lowest rate of 8.4% [8]. Across different cultural settings, bullying victimisation varies from country to country. For example, the Caribbean recorded 21% [9], China, 26.1% [10], USA, 29% [11] and Europe, recording the lowest rate of 31% [12]. Within the African setting, there are even higher rates of bullying victimisation among in-school adolescents. For example, in Ghana, 41.3% [13, 14], Malawi, 45% [15], Mozambique, 45.5% [16] and Zambia, 67% [17], showing that bullying victimisation is still high among the African population.

Research has indicated that victims of bullying experience diverse effects, including a higher risk of low self-esteem [18], poor academic performance [19, 20], dropping out of school [21], causing harm to self [22], abusing substances [13], feeling socially isolated [23] and feeling anxious and depressed [3]. Further, it is established that the negative effects of bullying among adolescents can persist several years after bullying is stopped, leading to challenges in establishing good relationships in adulthood because of social isolation experienced during adolescence [24]. Again, McDougall and Vaillancourt [25] have shown that previously bullied victims who even succeed in establishing healthy relationships are not satisfied with the quality of their relationships.

According to the ecological model, a person’s overall status of health and well-being are influenced by various factors at the micro (personal), meso (situational) and macro (socio-cultural) levels [26,27,28]. Some of these factors include age, gender, grade level and behaviours like loneliness, injury, substance use, suicide attempts, physical fights and physical attacks [13, 16]. For example, previous studies [13, 29] found that adolescents in higher grades/levels (SHS 3 and 4) had lower odds of being bullied verbally, physically and relationally. However, bullying victimisation using cyberspace has shown an opposing trend; Adolescents in higher grades/levels experienced higher odds of being victims of cyberbullying [29]. Furthermore, Aboagye et al. [1] revealed that adolescents (both males and females) who engaged in physical fights, had injuries, felt lonely, attempted suicide, used marijuana, and got attacked physically had higher odds of being bullied than their counterparts who did not experience such situations. These worrying situations can have dire consequences on the general health and well-being of bullied victims if stakeholders (e.g., teachers, school counsellors, health professionals, policymakers, and parents) do not take steps to end and/ or drastically minimise or prevent bullying in schools. Gender-based studies on bullying victimisation have reported varied results in different geographical settings. In Africa, females have recorded a bullying victimisation prevalence rate of 45%, while males have recorded 42%, with Southeast Asia recording a 19% prevalence rate for females as compared to 28% for males. While some studies have proposed that males are more likely to be victimised than females [30], other studies have revealed contradictory findings [29]. Moreover, Veenstra et al. [31] revealed that male adolescents are more bothered about the higher possibility of peer rejection than their female classmates, exposing them more to bullying victimisation. Again, a study in the USA [32] has revealed that female adolescent students who are depressed are more likely to be bullied and perform poorly academically compared to their male counterparts.

Moreover, a meta-analysis by Toomey and Russell [33] has indicated that males in the sexual minority have higher odds of being bullied compared to females in a similar situation. Another study conducted using students in high and middle schools in Canada revealed that females are more likely than males to report bullying based on sexual orientation, shape, appearance and size of their body. Investigators who study subtypes of bullying suggest that variances in gender are peculiar to each domain of bullying (i.e., relational/psychological forms of bullying victimisation versus physical forms of bullying victimisation). Thus, females who report bullying victimisation mostly show greater psychological effects like depression and anxiety, while males mostly report further negative physical health consequences [34]. These variations reflect vital regional differences in implementing policies at the national level and intervention programmes aimed at preventing and reducing bullying aside from socio-cultural factors [8].

Despite the adverse effects of bullying victimisation on the physical, psychological, economic, and general health and well-being of in-school adolescents, the topic has been barely researched in Benin. The only related study found in Benin is that of Kpozehouen et al. [35]. Kpozehouen and associates investigated Beninese women’s perceptions of violence caused by intimate partners using the 2011–2012 demographic health survey. Generally, intimate partner violence has been recorded as high among women with severe physical, emotional and psychological consequences in Benin [35]. Even though several investigations have been conducted on bullying victimisation in some parts of Africa, including Ghana, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria and Tanzania, no known study on gender-based bullying victimisation of school-going adolescents has been found in Benin. Again, it is not yet known whether Benin adheres to any current anti-bullying policies since the literature on bullying in the country is sparse. Given that context-specific effects may vary the patterns of bullying victimisation encounters among the adolescent population across different regions, it is important to investigate the connections between gender-based bullying victimisation and its associated factors in Benin to help stakeholders effectively manage both the perpetrators and victims of bullying among in-school adolescents.

This study aims to explore the gender differences in bullying victimisation and its correlates among adolescents, using data from the Global School-based Student Health Survey in Benin. Guided by the ecological model, we hypothesised that there would be gender differences in the significant statistical association between correlates such as students’ demographic (age, grade), personal (hunger, truancy, close friends, ever having sexual intercourse, multiple sexual partners), aggressive and abusive behaviours (physical attack, physical fight, serious injuries), and mental health (loneliness, worrying, suicidal ideation, suicidal plan, suicidal attempt), and bullying victimisation. Findings from this research could assist stakeholders in identifying and implementing appropriate interventions to minimise the incidence of gender-based bullying victimisation and promote the general health and well-being of all school-going adolescents. This approach would probably help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals 3, 4 and 5 of the United Nations.

2 Material and methods

2.1 Study design and setting

This analytic cross-sectional survey involves a secondary analysis of Benin’s national dataset from the 2016 Global School-Based Health Survey (GSHS). Benin’s national dataset is accessible through the link “https://extranet.who.int/ncdsmicrodata/index.php/catalog/627/study-description”. The GSHS employed a self-administered questionnaire to identify the risk and protective factors associated with morbidities and mortalities in school-going adolescents in World Health Organisation (WHO) member nations, from which Benin is not exempt. The WHO developed the survey in partnership with the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The US Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provided financial assistance for the study.

2.2 Sampling and data collection

The GSHS employed a two-stage cluster sampling design to recruit adolescent students across schools and grades in Benin. The first stage involved selecting schools in Benin, which served as the primary sampling units, using a probability proportional to their enrollment size. A systematic random sampling was employed to select classes in each eligible school at the second stage. All students in the selected classes were allowed to participate in the study. The response rate for the school was 100%, 78% for students, and 78% for the overall response rate. The survey instrument was pretested, during which questions were translated into French to test for comprehension before the main data collection. All eligible students were made to self-administer the questionnaire under the supervision of field data collection research assistants. Out of 2536 eligible participants in Benin, those aged 13 years and above (2496 students) formed our analytic sample. Missing values were accessed and observed to be missing at random. We conducted five multiple imputations using an automatic imputation method to address this. This approach ensured that the imputed values were consistent with the observed data, maintaining the integrity and quality of our dataset. Our results from the imputed data were comparable to those obtained from a complete case analysis.

2.3 Ethical considerations

Benin’s Ministry of Health (MOH) and the Ministry of Education (MoE) approved the study prior to the commencement of data collection. All ethics requirements of the MoH and MoE of Benin were observed throughout the study. Further, the protocols for entry permission to the schools through the school heads were observed. Adolescents below 18 years were made to sign a child assent form, and their parents signed the parental consent form following the provision of detailed information about the study. All ethical requirements of conducting research among human subjects in line with the Declaration of Helsinki were observed throughout the data collection process.

2.4 Study variables

2.4.1 Outcome variable

Bullying victimisation was considered the outcome variable for the study. This variable was measured using a single question, “During the past 12 months, have you ever been bullied?” Those who experienced any form of bullying responded ‘Yes’ and were assigned a score of 1, while those who did not experience any form of bullying responded ‘No’ and were assigned a score of 0. This question was operationalised to include any forms of bullying, including but not limited to physical bullying, verbal bullying, cyberbullying, et cetera, which occurred while the students were on school property or off school property.

2.4.2 Explanatory variable

The explanatory variables in this study have been categorised into demographic (age, grade), personal (hunger, truancy, close friends, ever having sexual intercourse, multiple sexual partners), aggressive and abusive behaviours (physical attack, physical fight, serious injuries), and mental health (loneliness, worrying, suicidal ideation, suicidal plan, suicidal attempt). For the demographic variables, students aged 13–15 years were assigned a score of 1, while those aged 16 years and above were assigned a score of 0. Also, grades 3rd–6th were scored as 1 while terminal–2nd grade was scored 0. For all other variables categorised under personal, aggressive, abusive behaviours, and mental health, a score of 1 was assigned to ‘Yes’ responses while 0 was assigned to ‘No’ responses.

2.5 Data analysis

Data was extracted from the WHO’s GSHS database and was organised, cleaned, screened, and analysed using IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 27. The two-stage cluster sampling was accounted for using the sample weighing approach to make the data representative of the population of adolescents in Benin. The gender-specific prevalence and overall prevalence of bullying victimisation were described using frequencies and percentages and depicted using bar charts. Pearson’s Chi-square test was conducted to determine the association between the outcome and explanatory variables, and the results were stratified by gender status. The multiple binary logistic regression was conducted to determine the magnitude of the association between explanatory variables and bullying victimisation. The Hosmer and Lemeshow test was used to declare the model’s goodness of fit for both males and females. Also, we employed the variance inflation factor (VIF) to assess for multicollinearity, at which point VIF below 10 was declared as a lack of collinearity. The multiple binary logistic regression analysis results were described using adjusted odds ratio (AOR), and statistical significance was declared at p-values less than 0.05 and 95% confidence interval (CI).

3 Results

3.1 Descriptive statistics of the prevalence of bullying across genders among in-school adolescents in Benin

The results for 2496 (1356 male and 1140 female) school-going adolescents have been presented. The overall prevalence of bullying among the participants was 1052 (42.1%). Among the males, the prevalence of bullying was 544 (40.1%), while the prevalence of bullying among the females was 508 (44.6%) (See Fig. 1). Although in-group prevalence indicated that females had a higher prevalence than males (44.6% > 40.1%), in the overall sample, females had lower odds of being victims of bullying compared to males (OR = 0.833, CI 0.025–0.711).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Gender-based and overall prevalence of bullying

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3.2 Bivariate analysis of the association between correlates and bullying victimisation among school-going adolescents in Benin, stratified by gender

Table 1 presents the results of the Chi-square analysis to determine the association between correlates and bullying victimisation among school-going adolescents in Benin across genders. Among the males, it was found that grade (p < 0.001), current cigarette smoking (p = 0.012), current alcohol use (p < 0.001), being physically attacked (p < 0.001), engaging in physical fight (p < 0.001), being seriously injured (p < 0.001), ideating suicide (p < 0.001), planning suicide (p < 0.001), and attempting suicide (p = 0.005) were significantly associated with bullying victimisation. However, bullying victimisation among females was significantly associated with age (p = 0.021), grade (p = 0.026), truancy (p = 0.011), current alcohol use (p = 0.003), being physically attacked (p < 0.001), engaging in physical fight (p < 0.001), being seriously injured (p < 0.001), loneliness (p = 0.007), ideating suicide (p < 0.001), planning suicide (p = 0.001), and attempting suicide (p = 0.019).

Table 1 Chi-square analysis of the association between correlates and bullying among school-going adolescents in Benin, stratified by gender
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3.3 Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis of correlates associated with bullying victimisation among school-going adolescents in Benin, stratified by gender

The results of the multiple binary logistic regression analysis to determine the magnitude of association between correlates and bullying victimisation among adolescents in Benin have been presented in Table 2. The results revealed that the odds of bullying victimisation were 56% significantly higher among males in lower grades than those in higher grades (AOR = 1.56, 95% CI 1.20–2.03). Also, there was a 32% increased odds of bullying victimisation among males who currently use alcohol compared to those who do not use alcohol (AOR = 1.32, CI 1.02–1.70). Males who were physically attacked (AOR = 1.78, 95% CI 1.32–2.40) and those who were seriously injured (AOR = 1.80, 95% CI 1.41–2.30), respectively, had 78% and 80% increased odds of bullying victimisation compared to males who were not physically attacked or seriously injured. Males who engaged in physical fights had 2.03 higher odds of bullying victimisation compared to those who did not engage in physical fights (AOR = 2.03, 95% CI 1.51–2.72).

Table 2 Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis of correlates associated with bullying among school-going adolescents in Benin, stratified by gender
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Among the females, there were 73% and 90% increased odds of bullying victimisation among those who were physically attacked (AOR = 1.73, CI 1.21–2.46) and those who engaged in physical fights (AOR = 1.90, CI 1.36–2.66), respectively, compared to those who were not physically attacked or engaged in physical fights. The odds of bullying victimisation were 60% higher among females who were seriously injured compared to those who were not injured (AOR = 1.60, CI 1.23–2.09). Also, females who ideated suicide had 2.04 higher odds of bullying victimisation compared to those who did not ideate suicide.

4 Discussion

Bullying is a prominent public health concern that affects adolescents’ mental and behavioural outcomes. It is an important problem that affects schools and influences the academic and social capabilities of students. Accordingly, the current inquiry assessed gender-based bullying victimisation among in-school adolescents in Benin using a binary criterion (“Yes” or “No). It further examined whether the prevalence of bullying victimisation is dependent on demographic, personal, drug and substance use, aggressive and abusive behaviours and mental health-related factors. Overall, the study established a 42.1% prevalence of bullying victimisation among in-school adolescents in Benin. This level of prevalence of bullying victimisation is higher than what was reported in 11 Sub-Saharan African countries (including Benin) [46] and Ghana [13]. However, lower than what was discovered in Nepal [40], Mozambique [41], Malawi [15], Ghana [38] and Zambia [17].

With respect to gender analysis of victimisation, males and females are both victims. Specifically, female in-school adolescents were more bullied than the males. This finding lends support to previous studies that have established that females have recorded a bullying victimisation prevalence rate higher than males [29]. For example, Merrill and Hanson [29] found that females are more bullied than males, while Bouffard and Koeppel [30] discovered contradictory findings. In Portugal, Silva et al. [36] found that bullying victimisation levels are higher for boys. These outcomes show that bullying victimisation among the African populace remains high. The conceivable justifications for the distinction in the discoveries include differences in survey year and sample size and structural differences in school environment, community, and culture. Besides, socio-cultural, situational, contextual, environmental and socio-economic differences in the sub-region may have a role in bullying victimisation. The relatively high prevalence of bullying victimisation among in-school adolescents in Benin could lead to a higher risk of low self-esteem, poor academic performance, dropping out of school, causing harm to self, abusing substances, feeling socially isolated, and feeling anxious and depressed. Understanding the role that gender plays in bullying is an important component of effective bullying intervention and prevention programs. For instance, gender identity can lead in-school adolescents to adapt and interact with their peers in different ways. Because of this socialisation, males and females in-school adolescents may experience bullying differently.

Given the high prevalence of bullying victimisation among in-school adolescents in Benin, there is an urgent need to overhaul, reassess and further improve the existing interventions for bullying prevention in schools in Benin. Drawing from the socio-ecological model, our investigation revealed that grade level, physical attacks and fights, injuries, drinking alcohol and suicidal ideations were significant predictors of bullying victimisation among in-school adolescents in Benin. Specifically, we discovered that male in-school adolescents in the Lower Grades (3rd–6th) were 1.6 times more likely to be bullied than the odds of those in Upper Grades (Terminal–2nd grade). These findings confirmed the study of Aboagye et al. [13] in Ghana that in-school adolescents at higher grade levels have lower odds of being bullied. This outcome agrees with previous studies that bullying victimisation decreases with increasing educational grades [29, 37]. This observation could be attributed to the fact that in-school adolescents at higher grade levels were more physically and psychologically developed to protect themselves from being bullied than those at lower levels [37]. Further, students at higher grade levels may be considered “seniors” and sometimes perpetrators of bullying rather than victims [13].

Further, physical attacks, fights and serious injuries increased the likelihood of adolescents in schools being bullied. Specifically, male in-school adolescents who experienced physical attacks had 1.8 times higher odds of being bullied than those who were not attacked by others, while female in-school adolescents who experienced physical attacks were 1.7 times more likely to be bullied than those who were not attacked by others. The study established that male in-school adolescents who engaged in physical fights were 2.1 times higher being bullied than the odds of those who did not fight, while female in-school adolescents who engaged in physical fights were 1.9 times more likely to be bullied than the odds of those who did not fight. Male in-school adolescents who were seriously injured were 1.8 times higher to be bullied than the odds of those who did not fight, while female in-school adolescents who were seriously injured were 1.6 times higher to be bullied than the odds of those who did not fight. Acquah et al. [38] showed that physical attack and injury exposure were linked to increased probabilities of bullying victimisation, which lends credence to this finding. This finding is further confirmed by the study of Aboagye et al. [13] in that physically attacked and being exposed to injury increased the likelihood for adolescents in schools to be bullied. Our results make sense when seen from the standpoint that physical abuse is bullying in and of itself, and that accompanying injuries may either cause or result from bullying [39]. Ceteris paribus, some male in-school adolescents might have the actual strength and mental sturdiness to oppose or shield themselves from being harassed. Conversely, female in-school adolescents might come up short on capacity to adapt to physical or mental profound deterrents or clashes successfully. Based on the findings, it is necessary to implement anti-bullying preventive interventions such as Rational Emotive Behavioral Education, in schools that target the protection of female adolescents. There is also the need to reinforce coping skills in students.

Again, the findings showed that adolescents who have experienced bullying may be more prone to high alcohol and drug use and self-harmful behaviours like suicide. These findings are consistent with previous studies [38, 40,41,42]. Maladaptive behaviour patterns (e.g., drug use, suicidal ideations and attempts) are linked to bullying victimisation [43]. The present finding is authenticated by several investigations [11, 13, 44, 45], which demonstrated that substance misuse (e.g. drinking alcohol) increases the likelihood that in-school adolescents may be subjected to bullying victimisation. Aboagye et al. [13], for example, reported that adolescents who used marijuana had a higher likelihood of being bullied. Lazarus’ coping theory could also demonstrate a link between alcohol use and bullying victimisation [46]. According to this theory, in-school adolescents may engage in risky behaviours that jeopardise their wellness (e.g., drinking alcohol) as a coping mechanism for the accessibility of unbearable daily stressors like bullying victimisation. Therefore, the current result that alcohol consumption increases the likelihood of being harassed and exploited sets the tone for further research.

Our research findings on suicide (suicidal ideations) affirmed previous studies by demonstrating that in-school adolescents who experienced bullying may be more prone to suicidal manifestations [47,48,49]. This finding highlights that bullying victimisation makes suicidal thoughts more likely to occur among adolescents. Bullying victimisation has a strong tendency to produce a profound sense of not belonging and feelings of unwantedness, which tends to increase the odds of attempting suicide [43]. Furthermore, being the victim of bullying aggravates low self-worth [50] and low self-esteem/confidence [51], which leads to suicidal thoughts and subsequent suicide attempts. In-school adolescents who have been harassed and bullied happen to underestimate or disparage and additionally foster pessimistic considerations about themselves, their character, and ensuing future ways of behaving [52]. In-school adolescents who endure different forms of bullying victimisation, for example, may be vulnerable to acclimatisation problems and externalising problems [54]. In particular, in-school adolescents who smoke marijuana and frequently miss class may exhibit high levels of anxiety, which may increase their vulnerability to torture. According to this research findings, behaviour modification interventions should be instituted at schools, and those already in existence should be improved.

5 Strengths and limitations

The study’s main strength is using a nationally representative dataset, such as the Global School-based Health Survey (GSHS), which enables us to generalise the findings to in-school adolescents in Benin. The survey questionnaire has also been applied and approved in various cultural contexts. The assessment of various factors linked to bullying victimisation was made possible by using questionnaires for secondary data collection. The high response rate and large sample size chosen through a systematic random process ensure that the results can be applied to other homogeneous groups. However, our research was not without limitations. First, we used information from a cross-sectional survey (GSHS—Benin), and in general, causality cannot be established—only associations can. Thus, robust interpretations of current associations are precluded by the factors noted in this study, which lack causality. The evaluation of bullying victimisation was dependent on categorical responses, which could not permit a more comprehensive evaluation of bullying victimisation and other psychological constructs like suicidal behaviours, worrying, and loneliness. As a result, our analysis could not account for or include other important theoretical predictors, such as the effects of by-standers. As secondary data, the study lacked the analysis of different forms of bullying as they were not originally collected. Therefore, it is crucial to consider the abovementioned limitations when interpreting our results.

6 Practical implications

The study outcomes on bullying victimisation among teenagers in Benin schools have a number of practical implications. The findings first emphasise how urgent it is to put targeted interventions into place, paying special attention to female students who seem to be more vulnerable to bullying. Strategies that address gender-specific vulnerabilities and experiences related to bullying should be given priority in schools in Benin. Second, the necessity for thorough screening and support systems in school settings is brought to light by the predictors that were found, including grade level, physical attacks, injuries, alcohol consumption, and suicidal thoughts. Using this information, teachers and school-based counsellors in Benin can create early identification protocols and promptly provide interventions for students who are at risk. Third, the study emphasises how critical it is to create a welcoming and safe school climate that actively combats bullying. Implementing and upholding anti-bullying policies is part of this. Lastly, the results highlight how important it is for stakeholders such as educators, parents, healthcare professionals, and community organisations to work together in order to address the list of interrelated factors that lead to bullying victimisation. Together, these organisations can develop comprehensive preventive and intervention plans that address the unique requirements of school-going adolescents attending Benin schools, ultimately enhancing their general well-being and academic performance.

7 Conclusions

The prevalence of bullying victimisation was relatively high among in-school adolescents in Benin using GSHS. Female in-school adolescents were more bullied than their counterparts. Grade level, physical attacks and fights, injuries, drinking alcohol and suicidal ideations were significant predictors of bullying victimisation among in-school adolescents in Benin. Male in-school adolescents who experienced physical attacks were more likely to be bullied than female in-school adolescents who experienced physical attacks. Male in-school adolescents who engaged in physical fights were less likely to be bullied than female in-school adolescents who engaged in physical fights. Male in-school adolescents who were seriously injured were more likely to be bullied than female in-school adolescents who were seriously injured. Male in-school adolescents who currently drink alcohol were more likely to be bullied. In contrast, female in-school adolescents who seriously considered attempting suicide (suicidal ideations) were more likely to be bullied. These findings indicate the value of in-school indicators of bullying victimisation and reiterate the importance of understanding how multidimensional factors may influence negative behaviour. Given the long-term psychological, physical and emotional consequences of bullying victimisation on the health of in-school adolescents, understanding current estimation and predictive factors could help with timely identification and management. Designing and implementing proactive interventions in schools are required to curb the situation in Benin. There is a need for policymakers and school authorities in Benin to design and implement policies and anti-bullying interventions focused on addressing behavioural issues, mental health and substance abuse that can result in bullying among in-school adolescents.