Abstract
The Abrigo de la Quebrada (Chelva, Valencia) stratigraphic succession comprises nine Middle Palaeolithic levels. Human selection of this rock shelter for occupation owes to its favourable location—at the gates of a blind valley where the trapping of large herbivores would have been practicable. The immediate environment is varied, with both abrupt and flat terrain, and would have supported a wide range of prey animals. Radiocarbon-dated charcoal samples from level IV, which is characterised by a high density of lithic (> 18,000) and bone (> 100,000) remains, yielded results of 43,930 ± 750 BP (Beta-244002) and > 51,6 ka BP (OxA-24855). There is no evidence of modification by carnivores or birds of prey, so this level’s faunal remains must be anthropogenic in the main. Relative to the inhabited space, the location of level IV’s many combustion features shows little variation. The level’s typical palimpsest structure results from frequent, repeated occupations with intense on-site processing in a context of low sedimentation rates. The study of seasonality, carcass exploitation, taphonomy, stone tool refitting and raw material provenience patterns supports the notion that the different occupations subsumed in the level IV deposit were all short term. The comparison of our results with coeval contexts from the central area of Mediterranean Iberia sheds additional light on the adaptations of western Europe’s Neanderthal groups.
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Introduction
The spatial patterning of Eurasian Middle Palaeolithic, Neanderthal-associated settlement sites has been intensely debated (Conard 2001, 2004; Moncel 2003; Delagnes and Rendu 2011; Daujeard et al. 2012). This is because, to a large extent, spatial patterns are one of the key elements in the reconstruction of social and economic behaviours (Rolland 1990; Mellars 1996; d’Errico et al. 1998; Gamble 1998; Vaquero et al. 2001; Burke 2006). The interpretation problems derive from the fact that, in most cases, our unit of analysis (the ‘archaeological level’) is the result of different occupation events forming what Bailey (2007) has defined as cumulative palimpsests. This raises the need to dissect the palimpsests into the individual occupational events they subsume, or, if possible, into the minimum constituent units of each such event.
To this aim, several approaches have been used—among others: geoarchaeological and archaeo-stratigraphical (Brochier 1999; Canals 1993; Goldberg and Macphail 2006; Mallol et al. 2010; Vallverdú-Poch and Courty 2012); ethnographic comparison (Binford 1978; O’Connell, 1987; O’Connell et al. 1992; Yellen 1977); statistical and mathematical modelling (Carr 1987; Kintigh and Ammerman 1982; Simek 1987; Stapert 1990; Whallon 1984); bone and stone tool refitting (Cziesla 1990; Cziesla et al. 1990; Eixea et al. 2011–2012; Gabucio et al. 2017; Machado et al. 2013; Rosell et al. 2012a; Villa 1982; Vaquero 1999); analyses of artefact density and of the frequency of retouched pieces relative to total lithic assemblage size (Barton and Riel-Salvatore 2014; Clark and Barton 2017); technological analysis of raw material units (RMUs) (Conard and Adler 1997; Adler et al. 2003; Turq et al. 2017; Roebroeks 1988); studies of combustion features (Courty et al. 2012; Henry 2012; Mallol et al. 2013; Vaquero and Pastó 2001); or analyses of the dispersion of archaeobotanical remains (seeds, fruits and charcoals) (Castro-Curel and Carbonell 1995; Chabal 1988; Solé et al. 2013; Thiébault 1995; Vidal-Matutano 2016; Vidal-Matutano et al. 2017). The complementary nature of these methods and techniques allows the synchronisation of activities, upon which occupation events can in turn be individualised, making it possible to arrive at better estimates of group size and occupation length and, hence, at a better understanding of socio-economic strategies.
In the present study, we analyse the lithic and bone data from level IV of Abrigo de la Quebrada, which is a clear example of a cumulative palimpsest (Eixea 2015; Eixea et al. 2011–2012; Villaverde et al. 2008, 2017). The complexity of the accumulation does not allow the subdivision of the finds into discrete sets related to a corresponding unique event. Thus, we consider the deposit’s content as whole and look at its spatial structure under a technological and taphonomical perspective to try to better understand the general nature of the different human occupations therein subsumed.
Materials and Methods
The Site
The Middle Palaeolithic rock shelter of Abrigo de la Quebrada (Chelva, Valencia, Spain) lies in an area demarcated by the Tuéjar-Chelva and Turia rivers, between steep mountain formations: the Macizo de Javalambre (part of the Sistema Ibérico) and the Serra d’Utiel. The site, situated on the left side of the Rambla de Ahillas canyon, corresponds to a sheltered area that, today, is 38 m long and 2–9 m wide (Fig. 1). Originally, the shelter’s surface would have been larger, reaching a maximum amplitude of 11 m. Slope erosion processes explain the truncation of the deposit, whose upper reaches, including level IV, were most affected. The site was excavated between 2007 and 2015, over an area of 30 m2 for the upper levels and of 27 m2 for the lower ones.
Abrigo de la Quebrada: location (a, b); site overview (c); excavation trench (the Roman numerals indicate the level reached in each square) (d)
The Quebrada stratigraphic succession spans approximately 4 m and comprises nine units (Table 1). Level I, at the top, is disturbed by penning. Middle Palaeolithic human occupations are recorded in levels II to V and VII to IX; level VI is archaeologically sterile. Anthropogenic inputs are especially significant in levels III, IV and V. In the present study, we focus on level IV, dated to the early stages of MIS 3 (see below).
Charcoal analysis of uppermost levels I–IV shows a dominance of Pinus (Pinus nigra and Pinus sylvestris), Juniperus and other gymnosperms. Quercus, Rhamnus and other dicotyledonous plants were also identified but in low numbers (Badal et al. 2012). These results indicate dry or sub-humid supramediterranean conditions through the entire sequence, with no indication of warm episodes (Badal et al. 2012). This inference is consistent with the phytolith data (Esteban et al. 2015). The few micro-mammalian remains found in the upper levels of MIS 3 age (Table 1) most likely reflect accumulation by small carnivores at times when the site was not occupied by humans (Tormo and Guillem-Calatayud 2015) and their species composition is consistent with the palaeobotanical data.
Methods
Lithic and Refits Analysis
To establish the technological characteristics of each rock (flint, quartzite, limestone and quartz) and their relation to procurement, stone tools were organised into raw material units (RMU) (Conard and Adler 1997; Roebroeks 1988; Vaquero 2008) whose separateness was verified by macro- and microscopic analysis (Eixea et al. 2011, 2014; Prudêncio et al. 2016; Roldán et al. 2015). The technological study was conducted from a chaîne opératoire perspective (Boëda et al. 1990; Bourguignon et al. 2004; Faivre 2011; Geneste 1985, 1988; Tixier et al. 1980; Turq 2000), and retouched pieces (including those with macro- and micro-use wear) were classified using the type list of Bordes (1988). The different sequences of the operational chains and the temporality relations of the sample were assessed through refitting. All the finds taken in consideration for the establishment of different kinds of knapping activities—exploitation, configuration, retouching, fracturing—and the distances between the elements were quantified, as was their location in space (Cziesla 1990; Cziesla et al. 1990; Kvamme 1997; Newcomer and Sieveking 1980; Vaquero et al. 2017).
Archaeostratigraphy and Spatial Analysis
ArcGIS® software was used to assess the existence of breaks in the horizontal and vertical distribution of the remains, potentially indicative of occupational hiatuses that could be used to subdivide the palimpsest into its different components (Canals 1993; Canals et al. 2003; Vaquero et al. 2012a, b). For level IV, the finds were projected on 5–10-cm-thick vertical slices cut across the central area of the excavation trench, which were found to be representative of both the internal and external parts of the inhabited space, preserved in bands 3 to 5 of the excavation grid (Eixea 2015; Eixea et al. 2011–2012; Villaverde et al. 2017).
Faunal Remains
Level IV comprises four excavation spits (6, 7, 8 and 9) (Eixea et al. 2011–2012, 2012; Sanchis et al. 2013; Villaverde et al. 2017). The faunal content of these spits was analysed in its entirety. Taxonomic and anatomical identifications were made against the reference collection of the Gabinet de Fauna Quaternària (Museu de Prehistòria de València). The indeterminate fragments for which only an anatomical identification was possible were classified into three groups according to their size: large, medium and small.
The number of remains (NR), the number of identified specimens (NISP) and the minimum number of individuals (MNI) (Lyman 1994, 2008) were calculated. The correlation between the survival index (%ISu) (Brain 1981; Lyman 1994) and the bone density of the best represented taxa (Hillson 1992; Lyman 1985) was assessed via calculation of Pearson’s r. Age-at-death was established based on dental eruption and wear and epiphysis fusion (Azorit et al. 2002; Hillson 1986; Mariezkurrena 1983; Pérez Ripoll 1988; Serrano et al. 2004; Silver 1980).
Classification of fractures followed Villa and Mahieu (1991). A binocular loupe (Nikon SMZ-10A) was used for the study of surface modifications. Cut mark classification followed the relevant literature (Binford 1981; Bromage and Boyde 1984; Noe-Nygaard 1989; Potts and Shipman 1981; Shipman and Rose 1983). Burnt remains were recorded for colour and localisation of the burning after Nicholson (1993), Stiner et al. (1995) and Théry-Parisot et al. (2004). The assessment of post-depositional modifications followed Lyman (1994).
Luminescence Dating
Two samples were collected from archaeologically sterile unit VI at depths of 1.8 m (C-L3898) and 1.4 m (C-L3900) to provide a terminus post quem for the formation of unit IV. The sediment is laminated, which indicates fluvial deposition. Sample preparation and equipment are the same as described in Klasen et al. (2018). We used a single-aliquot regenerative-dose approach (SAR) for all measurements (Murray and Wintle 2000, 2003). Laboratory experiments included a preheat plateau test and a dose recovery test. Multiple grain feldspar aliquots (1 mm) were measured using post-infrared infrared stimulation (pIRIR, Thomsen et al. 2008; Thiel et al. 2011), and we obtained the most appropriate stimulation temperature using a range of different temperatures as well as a dose recovery test. The radionuclide concentration of the surrounding sediments was measured using high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry. The dose rate was calculated using the conversion factors of Guerin et al. (2011), an assumed water content of 10 ± 3%, an a value of 0.07 ± 0.02 as well as an assumed potassium content of 12.5 ± 0.5% (Huntley and Baril 1997). The rubidium concentration was calculated from the potassium concentration (Mejdahl 1987), and the cosmic dose rate was calculated after Prescott and Hutton (1994).
Results
Site Chronology
Radiocarbon accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating of ABA-treated charcoal fragments yielded ages of 40,500 ± 530 BP (Beta-244003) and 43,930 ± 750 BP (Beta-244002) for levels III and IV, respectively (Villaverde et al. 2008). The levels III and IV are also dated by an ABOx-processed sample, which yielded a result of > 50,800 (OxA-24854) and > 51,600 BP (OxA-24855) (Eixea et al. 2011–2012). We present also an unpublished date from level V (Quebrada 2010 G3C11 Sc5), made by an ABOx-processed sample on charcoal fragment (Pinus nigra/sylvestris): > 47,100 (OxA-25583).
The preheat plateau exposed that the quartz OSL signal was saturated, and therefore, quartz was not further measured. According to the laboratory experiments, the most appropriate temperature combination to measure the feldspar samples is pIR80IR290 stimulation (Suppl. Fig. 1). The feldspar age estimates (Suppl Tab. 1) of 80.0 ± 4.7 ka (C-L3900) and 83.2 ± 5.4 ka (C-L3898) for level VI, which is archaeologically sterile, provide a maximum age for the Middle Palaeolithic occupations in overlying levels II–V. These results indicate deposition during MIS 3–4 for levels II–V, during MIS 5a for level VI, and, potentially, deposition during earlier phases of MIS 5 for levels VII–VIII, which remain undated but yielded a small mammal assemblage consistent with an Upper Pleistocene chronology (Tormo and Guillem-Calatayud 2015).
The Level IV Lithic Industry
Blanks and Raw Materials
Level IV yielded 18,936 lithic remains. Chips, < 1 cm in length, are the most abundant blanks (87.6%), indicating the high intensity of reduction. Production mostly focused on the extraction of quadrangular flakes, 2–4 cm long and wide and 0.5–1 cm thick (Eixea 2015; Villaverde et al. 2017) (Table 2). Four different rocks have been identified so far: flint, limestone, quartzite and quartz. The local, Domeño-type flint is the most abundant raw material. It occurs in Middle Jurassic formations and is well suited for knapping. The geological stratum where it was first identified outcrops in the hillsides above River Turia, 5–8 km from the site. The allochthonous flints, classified into four subgroups (types 1, 2, 3 and 4), are good-quality raw materials whose macroscopic attributes differ from the Domeño type and match sources located > 100 km away (Eixea et al. 2011; Prudêncio et al. 2016; Roldán et al. 2015). The quartzite and limestone blocks selected for knapping are fine-grained and have a microcrystalline structure. They were likely collected as cobbles in the Ahillas streambed, a few meters away.
Knapping Systems and Tools
Lithics were produced using discoid and recurrent-centripetal Levallois methods. Dorsal scars are mostly centripetal in both knapping systems; a few scars indicate unidirectional and bidirectional reduction sequences. The abundance of cortex-bearing cores and flakes of different sizes indicates that knapping was carried out on site. Flake sizes are small to medium; a significant number—both retouched and unretouched—are smaller than 1.5 cm (Eixea 2015; Villaverde et al. 2008, 2017). Retouched pieces are slightly larger than average.
Retouched tools are 424, and another 54 pieces bear use-wear. Cortex is seen in 34.8% of the sample; lateral overshooting is seen in only four tools. Scrapers with a single modified edge amount to 42.9% of the retouched tools, while those with two or more modified edges are 8.8%. Sixty-two percent of the single scrapers are convex and 20% are transversal-convex; their blanks are mostly Levallois, either recurrent-centripetal or preferential. Cortex is more frequently present in scrapers, often in lateral zones, than in other pieces, so scrapers tend to be naturally backed (Eixea 2015). The simple, continuous and direct types of retouch predominate, often eliminating a sizable proportion of the blank’s original edge (Table 2).
There are 28 Mousterian points (5.8% of the formal tools). The primary blanks are both Levallois (50%), mostly of the preferential variety, and discoid (40%); use of the latter results in tools that are thicker and asymmetric (Eixea et al. 2015). Notches and denticulates (not very invasive and mostly laterally located) amount to 7.3% and are made on both discoid (50%) and Levallois (30%) blanks. The number of Upper Palaeolithic-like implements is low (1%): they are all backed knives, four typical and one atypical. The Levallois typological group represents 23% of the formal tools; these are mostly typical Levallois flakes (14.4%), atypical ones (7.7%) and points (1.5%) (Eixea 2015).
The Level IV Faunal Assemblage
Species Composition
The level IV sample totals 100,907 remains (Table 3). Of these, 1.3% have been identified taxonomically; the remainder correspond to fragments that could be identified anatomically and classified by size (2.1%), and to indeterminate fragments (96.6%). The undetermined items are smaller than 3 cm in 97.7% of the cases, and even though some are spongy bones, most (> 80%) are long bone fragments.
The assemblage features a taxonomic diverse range of medium- and large-size ungulates, but carnivores and small game are also present. Eight different families have been identified (Table 3): Bovidae (Caprinae), Equidae, Cervidae, Leporidae, Testudinidae, Suidae, Rhinocerotidae, Felidae and Canidae (Sanchis et al. 2013). There are also some bird bones.
By NISP, Caprinae (32%), followed by Equidae (20.4%) and Cervidae (15.9%), are the dominant taxa. Using MNI, Equidae are the more important, with seven individuals, leaving behind Caprinae and Cervidae with five and four, respectively (Table 3). As for small game, there is a notable presence of tortoises (Testudo hermanni) (20.4%), followed by leporids (10.1%). The eruption and wear of the teeth of Equidae, Caprinae and Cervidae suggests that the shelter was occupied by humans between spring and autumn. Further precision must await the results of forthcoming dental micro-wear analyses (Rivals and Deniaux 2005).
Body Part Representation
Among the four main taxonomic families, all anatomical groups are represented (Fig. 2). Except for the axial group, Caprinae and Cervidae show a generally balanced body part representation. In the case of Equidae, however, there is a bias towards the cranial material, mostly teeth (which stand for 76% of the taxon’s remains). Medium-sized prey such as red deer and ibex therefore seem to have been introduced as complete carcasses; the under-representation of their axial elements could be the consequence of intense processing, or of post-depositional fragmentation preventing precise taxonomic identification. The bias seen among the remains of larger prey, namely horse, may be due to differential transport of body parts, even though, given the compact structure of teeth, differential preservation factors cannot be excluded (Real et al., in preparation).
Body-part representation (%NISP) of the main families identified in the faunal assemblage from level IV of Quebrada. Antler (Ant), cranium (Cr), maxillary (Mx), mandible (Mand), teeth (Th), rib (Rb), scapula (Sc), humerus (H), radius (R), ulna (U), carpal (Cp), metacarpal (Mc), coxal (Cx), femur (F), tibia (T), metatarsal (Mt), patella (Pa), astragal (As), calcaneus (Ca), metapodia (Mtp), first phalange (Pha1), second phalange (Pha2), third phalange (Pha3), sesamoid (Se)
The leporid remains are dominated by bones from the fore limbs and extremities. In the case of tortoises, the best represented parts are the plates. In both cases, given the small size of the prey, it is likely that they were introduced as complete carcasses, and the same for birds (Eixea et al. 2011–2012; Sanchis et al. 2013; Villaverde et al. 2017).
Taphonomy
Digested bones and bones bearing tooth or beak marks indicative of the use of the shelter by carnivores or birds of prey have not been found.
The fragmentation of the sample is very high: only 0.1% of the remains are complete bones. Moreover, only 0.3% of the > 3-cm fragments are also > 5 cm long. Anthropogenic fractures, of which 20% are green bone fractures, are found on 67.6% of the determined bones; some fragments combine shaft and epiphysis. Green fractures predominate in almost all the taxa, reaching percentages as high as 31.5% among Leporidae, 45% among Caprinae and 54.5% among Cervidae. In the case of Equidae, the percentage is lower (9%) but, if we exclude the teeth, comparable 38.3%. Among ungulates, long bone shaft fragments without a complete circumference are the most common fracture morphotype (Fig. 3). This type stands for 88.1% of green fractures among Caprinae and for 92.3 and 96.4% of such fractures among Equidae and Cervidae, respectively.
Anthropogenic modification in faunal remains from level IV of Quebrada: green fractures (a); fragments detached by impact (b); percussion notches on remains of middle-size prey (c); cut marks on the remains of middle-size prey (d); Testudo hermanni plates, one with a cut mark (e)
Eighteen fragments could be identified as shatter caused by percussion with a stone tool (Fig. 3), while 55 bear percussion notches and 66 other kinds of anthropogenic modifications (mainly cut marks). These types of modifications are mostly present on the remains of medium-size animals, although a cut mark in the inner side of a completely calcined tortoise plate has also been recorded (Table 4; Fig. 3).
The number of burnt bones is significant: 57% of the identified remains are completely burned (Table 4). Calcined bones predominate, followed by those in the early stages of burning, showing a brown-black colouration. The highest values are found among Testudinidae (74.2%) and Leporidae (47.8%), even though the percentages among Caprinae, Cervidae and Equidae are no less significant (above 30% in all three cases).
The correlation between %ISu and bone density suggests that the sample was affected by post-depositional processes. Indeed, the correlation coefficient—0.58 (Equidae), 0.61 (Cervidae) and 0.76 (Caprinae)—is high for the three main taxonomic groups and so is the positive probability.
Combining the Level IV Data
A synthetic, broader view of the role played by Quebrada in the settlement-subsistence system(s) of the Middle Palaeolithic of the central region of Mediterranean Iberia requires that the different lines of evidence be combined for overall assessment. Thus, in the following, the results from the study of stone tools and faunal remains from level IV are considered alongside the charcoal and phytolith data to address issues of spatial organisation, palimpsest formation, duration of occupation, hunting activity and mobility patterns.
Spatial Analysis
As the distribution of lithic and bone remains well illustrates, the same area of the shelter was repeatedly occupied (Figs. 4 and 5). This is because of the limited space available behind the drip line: about 4 m today, and narrowing as one moves away from the central area of the site. As an example, Fig. 4 shows the distribution of the Caprinae remains (the best represented taxon) against the background of the distribution of all faunal and lithic remains: finds are concentrated in the interior area, corresponding to row 3 of the grid, and especially in columns E, G, I and K (Eixea et al. 2011–2012, 2012), and decrease in density as we move towards row 5 (squares C–K). Note, however, that the centre of each distribution is different: while most lithics come from I3 and K3–5, most faunal remains come from I3 and K3.
Spatial patterning in level IV of Quebrada (the dashed red line indicates the position of the extant drip line): the remains of Caprinae against the iso-density plot of the totality of the bone assemblage (a); stone tool refit links against the iso-density plot of the totality of the lithic assemblage (b)
Vertical distributions within level IV of Quebrada: projection of the finds from rows 3 (above) and 5 (below) of the grid along the shelter’s longitudinal (N-S) axis
In the western zone (squares D, B and A), finds and features are in much lower numbers. Conversely, middle- and large-sized blocks were more numerous in this area. Most hearths are in squares C3, C4 and A4, as if marking a discrete boundary between the two zones. Almost all the other hearths are in squares G-I/5–6 and K5—as if marking the limits of the inhabited space to east and north—and in close association with the densest patches of the distribution of both lithic and faunal remains (Fig. 4).
We compared the degree of bone fragmentation between the two areas of level IV to see if there was any correlation between bone density and degree of fragmentation. Based on the number of identified remains only, the percentage of < 3-cm fragments is higher in the eastern area (33.6%) than in the western one (18.1%). Attempts have been made to compare the number of complete versus incomplete bones, but there are so few of the former that the results are not significant.
No bone refits could be done, due to the high level of fragmentation of the remains and their poor conservation—often thermo-altered and with abundant concretion covering. Stone tool refitting shows that the space available was used in its entirety and that no structure relating to the clustering of activities, or of individual occupation events, survived, or can be discerned (Fig. 6) (Eixea 2015; Eixea et al. 2012). The higher density of finds and features seen in the eastern area correlates with this being also the area in which most refit links plot. Likely, the explanation for both patterns lies in the fact that this is where the distance between drip line and back wall is larger, this being therefore the most protected area of the shelter.
Refitting evidence from level IV: Levallois (preferential method) flakes refitted on their core (a); refitted limestone flakes (discoid method) (b); refitted limestone core of the chopping-tool type (c)
Palimpsest
Level IV features dense lithic and bone scatters and many combustion features forming a continuous distribution, with no sterile lenses, across the entire thickness of the deposit, as is well apparent in vertical projection (Fig. 5). This is due to a slow sedimentation rate and corresponds to a typical palimpsest structure. The superposition of combustion structures indicates that the shelter was used recurrently but, beyond that, the record is not amenable to further precision as to the duration and specific spatial properties of individual occupation events.
The compaction of multiple occupation events into a single, undifferentiated deposit also contributes to explain the high degree of fragmentation of the finds: > 80% of the lithics are chippage and > 90% of the fauna are small fragments. While this may be related to human activity—e.g. on-site knapping and intensive recycling of blanks, in the case of lithics, or carcass processing, in the case of bones—post-depositional processes, namely trampling, clearly play a major role. Note that the charcoal remains are also of a small size—on average, < 2 mm (Badal et al. 2012).
These factors also explain why hearths often lack a clear structure. They may have been dismantled by subsequent activity (Fig. 7), and the distribution of burnt phytoliths includes areas devoid of combustion features, showing that ash scattered across the entire excavation trench. Even though natural agency (e.g. winds) may explain such a pattern to some extent, human agency (e.g. cleaning, trampling) must also be involved (Esteban et al. 2015).
Combustion features in level IV of Quebrada: hearths (a–d); decapage surface showing both greyish sediments and the reddening produced by later occupations (e)
Short Occupations
Individual occupation events seem to have been short, though recurring. Given its position (northwest facing and at the bottom of a narrow, steep gorge), the shelter is characterised by scarce insolation and high exposure to winds, making it unsuitable for use in the winter. Indeed, human presence was restricted to between spring and autumn, according to the ungulate seasonality data (Eixea et al. 2011–2012), or more precisely to between June and October, according to the phytolith data (Esteban et al. 2015). Species such as ibex and red deer are available throughout the year, given their low migratory nature, but in the case of Quebrada, they were hunted on a seasonal basis. Horse, a more migratory species that could have taken advantage of the region’s natural corridors for its displacements, seems, however, to have been hunted only in spring.
The reuse of pieces discarded in the shelter during previous occupations, and the recycling of blanks and tools into cores, further supports the notion of recurrent occupation (Rios et al. 2014) (Fig. 8). In turn, the high proportion of unretouched blanks, the small size of the pieces and the predominance of local raw materials (namely, the Levallois reduction of quartzite and limestone, despite the latter’s short edge life) support the notion that such recurrent occupations were also short ones. This notion is corroborated by the frequency with which scraper edges were resharpened: 26.9% bear traces of the procedure and, in many, it is also clear that discard happens clearly before the potential for edge rejuvenation was exhausted, suggesting work processes that were not lengthy.
Stone tool economy in level IV of Quebrada: recycled pieces (a, g); rejuvenated (edge-resharpened) pieces (b, c, e, f) (d)
The 29 combustion features identified are related to domestic activities and the time investment involved in their preparation is in all cases small. Each hearth seems to correspond to a separate event; no evidence was found for the simultaneous use of two or more.
Hunting Activities
The Ahillas streambed runs through a canyon that opens onto a wide plain. The bottom of the canyon being a dead end, it is easy to see how this natural trap could be used by hunters and why Quebrada, located at the mouth of the canyon, was selected for shelter. In addition, this location allows access to the different adjacent biotopes: mountain, plains and riverside. From such a home base, Middle Palaeolithic groups could have a good control of the territory and hunt a wide range of prey, as indeed reflected in the taxonomic diversity of the faunal assemblage.
The taphonomic study of the bone remains shows that carcasses were processed for meat and marrow consumption. The evidence consists of longitudinal marks made with stone tools (cut marks and scrapes), linked to the extraction of meat, and of percussion breaks intent on fracturing long bones to access the marrow within (Fig. 3).
Use-wear analysis of the stone tool points revealed the presence of impact fractures and of hafting-related edge scarring (Eixea et al. 2015) (Fig. 9B). Additionally, preliminary use-wear analysis of micro-flakes has shown that, in overlying levels II and III, such items were used for butchering (Villaverde et al. 2012). When accuracy is more important than strength, the small size of these sharp-edge pieces is advantageous.
Stone tools from level IV of Quebrada: transversal-convex sidescraper on Levallois flake, flint (A1); déjeté sidescraper on discoid flake, quartzite (A2); Levallois débordant flake with macro use-wear on the edge opposite to the méplat, flint (A3–A4); Levallois preferential flakes with macro use-wear, flint (A5–A9); Levallois preferential flakes with macro use-wear, flint (A10–A12); Levallois preferential micro-flake with macro use-wear, flint (A13); simple-convex sidescraper on discoid flake, flint (A14); natural backed knife, flint (A15); concave-convex, simple sidescraper opposite to méplat, flint (A16); denticulate, flint (A17); Mousterian point, flint (A18); déjeté micro-sidescraper, quartzite (A19); micro-pseudo Levallois point with use-wear on edge opposite the méplat (B1, B3); point with impact fractures (B2); detail of point with spalling by impact (B2); polish on ventral side of point (B4)
Mobility Patterns
The data on seasonality and duration of individual occupation events imply the existence of additional points of settlement location, and the sourcing of the dominant Domeño-type flint does show that it would have been procured from areas located 5–8 km away (Eixea et al. 2011, 2014). Given the mobility patterns of prey such as horse, ibex or red deer (Aura et al. 2002), it is only logical to expect that their pursuit be carried out from different sites, the use of which varied as a function of opportunity, target species and time of the year. In the framework of such a settlement-subsistence system, Quebrada would have been mostly occupied to hunt horse herds passing-by in the spring and, possibly, between summer and autumn, too.
The allochthonous, good-quality flints found among the Quebrada lithics match sources located > 100 km away, in the southern parts of the central Mediterranean region, where a significant concentration of sites exists (Eixea et al. 2014; Roldán et al. 2015). For instance, the Serreta-type flint, present in small amounts at Quebrada, is documented at such distant sites as Cova Negra (Xàtiva), Cova de les Cendres (Teulada-Moraira) and El Salt (Alcoi) (Eixea et al. 2011). The exploitation of these raw materials indicates mobility along the natural corridors that traverse the Valencian region from interior to coast and from north to south (Aura et al. 1993). Whether this reflects the mobility of individual Neanderthal groups over long distances or the circulation of raw materials through exchange networks covering vast expanses of Mediterranean Iberia, or both, remains to be clarified. However, the percentages of flint from distant sources and their technological characteristics (low frequency of cortical elements and predominance of items from the final phases of operational chains) support the idea that the patterns reflect the transport of toolkits and, hence, the movement of personnel.
Discussion
Density of Finds
The formation of an archaeological deposit depends on a wide range of factors that cannot always be accurately characterised: territorial mobility patterns, duration of the occupations, group size, availability of prey, raw material exploitation, seasonal environmental variation and human demography. These factors converge to produce modes of site use that, based on the composition of the archaeological assemblages that have been analysed in our region (Gabucio et al. 2017; Machado and Pérez 2016; Machado et al. 2013; Rosell et al. 2012a), are often reduced to two types: residential occupations (‘camp sites’), and hunting or passing-by stands. When assigning specific occupations to one of these types, the density of finds has been considered a relevant indicator. However, samples of a large size and featuring a high density of finds—of which there are numerous examples in Mediterranean Iberia, e.g. Abric Romaní, Teixoneres, Cova Beneito, Cova del Bolomor or El Salt (Blasco and Fernández-Peris 2012b; Gabucio et al. 2014; Iturbe et al. 1993; Machado and Pérez 2016; Rosell et al. 2010, 2012a, b)—can also be an artefact of the intensity of specific activities or of post-depositional modification, namely of recurrent use in the context of low sedimentation rates. When the degree of fragmentation is high, an additional problem is whether the cause lies in anthropogenic, natural (e.g. carnivore activity) or post-depositional processes.
If we focus on the bone assemblages, the differences between sites are drastic (Table 5). For example, level IV of Quebrada yielded 16,817 bone remains per m3, compared to < 100/m3 in all the Abric Romaní levels for which data have been published (e.g. levels H, I, K, M). Breakage patterns underpin this difference to a significant extent. In the case of Quebrada IV, the correlation between %ISu and bone density suggests that the primary cause for the fragmentation resides in the palimpsest formation processes rather than in the intensity of human activities.
As ought to be expected, differences in the percentage of identified bones correlate well with differences in their degree of fragmentation. Compared to Bolomor IV, Beneito X or XII, Pastor IVb and Cova Negra II, in which the percentage of identified remains ranges between 11 and 30%, the values are extremely low in Quebrada: 1.3% in level IV and 1–2% in level VIII. In some assemblages, identification reaches 40% (Pastor IVc, Abric Romaní L) to 60% (Abric Romaní K, Teixoneres IIIb), and even > 90% (Teixoneres IIa, IIb and IIIa). However, these higher values may reflect the non-anthropogenic, at least in part, nature of the accumulations, as is clearly the case at Teixoneres, where carnivores are a significant contributor of complete remains (Rosell et al. 2010).
The relative abundance of stone tools is a good indicator that a given archaeological deposit is largely anthropogenic. In this respect, level IV of Quebrada stands out among the other Middle Palaeolithic contexts of Valencia and Mediterranean Iberia as that featuring the highest density of lithic remains: excluding knapping debris, 388.5/m3. However, many of the Quebrada lithics are chippage, of which a large part may be thermal and hence a post-depositional alteration product secondarily generated by fire use rather than primarily generated by stone tool knapping. Bearing this in mind, we can exclude such elements from the comparisons, but doing so does not much change the picture; only Bolomor IV features comparable numbers (Table 5). Based on this indicator alone, one might conclude that Quebrada was a major residential site, but the associated evidence shows otherwise. Thus, even though reliable where it comes to assess the anthropogenic nature of a deposit, the number and density of stone tool finds is, in and of itself, insufficient and may be even misleading, where it comes to assess the type, duration and intensity of a site’s human occupation.
The comparison with Abric Romaní is particularly striking and highlights the need to consider the general context and nature of the sites involved in find density comparisons. In cases such as Quebrada, the small size of the sheltered space implies repeated use of the same area through the different occupation events, thereby generating high find densities. The opposite is the case at the Abric Romaní, where the much larger space available for settlement makes for the spatial segregation of consecutive occupation events. Such differences in site topography are compounded by potential differences in the economy of the debitage (raw material procurement, degree of fragmentation of the operational chains, reduction of stone tools via edge rejuvenation, intensity of blank recycling) and in the mode of exploitation of the faunal resources (seasonality, targeted prey, body part selection, transport and consumption patterns). Correct interpretation of find density numbers requires adequate consideration of all these factors.
Site Function
Depending on available data, site function can be approached in terms of the permanency of the stays and of the nature of the activities, often expressed as a dichotomy between residential and non-residential camps (e.g. knapping sites, hunting or observation stands, procurement localities, travelling stops), or in terms of the duration of individual occupation events and the size of the group of occupants (Binford, 1980; Kelly, 1983, 2013). Here, under the assumption that group size is usually stable and features little variation (Bocquet-Appel and Degioanni 2013; Cucart-Mora et al. 2017; French 2016; Hassan 1979; Hockett and Haws 2005; Sørensen 2011; Zubrow 1989), we focus our discussion on length of occupation.
Such contexts as Abric Romaní (Gabucio et al. 2017; Rosell et al. 2012a), El Salt X (Machado and Pérez 2016; Pérez et al. 2015) and Bolomor IV (Sañudo and Fernández-Peris 2007) have been classified as structured residential places because of the presence of hearths and the spatial distribution of faunal and lithic remains (Table 6), mainly a by-product of domestic tasks such as stone tools knapping or the processing and consumption of prey. In addition, as has been shown at Abric Romani (Vallverdú et al. 2010), rest and waste-management areas also exist. In all these sites, the hearths are the focal points structuring the inhabited space and around which similar activities are carried out after consecutive occupation event. Mostly, such occupations have been defined as short and recurrent, but it has been proposed that level J of Abric Romaní reflects longer residency.
The patterns observed at Quebrada, Beneito, Pastor and Roca dels Bous are slightly different. The area excavated at Beneito (3 m2; Table 5) is too small to assess spatial patterns, but we note the high density of finds reflecting the exploitation of a broad ecosystem (Iturbe 1991; Iturbe et al. 1993). This is consistent with what we see at the other three sites, in which occupation is seasonal, focused on basic subsistence activities such as the processing of the hunt and the production of stone tools, and organised around hearths (Eixea et al. 2011–2012; Machado et al. 2013)—even though, for Roca dels Bous (Mora et al. 2008, 2011–2012), the corroborating faunal evidence is still lacking. All of this, however, seems to take place, each time, around a single hearth, without the spatial segregation of specific activities seen at the Abric Romaní.
Cova Negra and Teixoneres form a third category of contexts, ones characterised by short duration and taking place between significant intervals of abandonment. Alternating with periods of exclusive carnivore use (evident in the number of carnivore remains and the percentage of bones bearing non-anthropogenic modifications; Table 6), the otherwise spatially restricted find scatters excavated at these sites probably reflect limited occupation by small-sized task groups (Talamo et al. 2016; Villaverde et al. 2009). This accords well with the significant fragmentation of the lithic operational chains, implying that stone tool knapping would have been carried out in exterior, non-excavated areas of the caves or elsewhere in the landscape.
Subsistence
In all sites, hunting is the dominant subsistence activity and focuses on medium-sized (Caprinae, Cervidae) and large (Bovinae, Equidae) prey (Table 6). Access to the carcasses is primary (even though, at Bolomor, carnivores were also partly involved in the accumulation of ibex; Sanchis and Fernández-Peris 2008), but body part transport patterns show some variation. Species such as red deer and ibex were transported complete to Quebrada or Abric Romaní. In other sites, transport is more selective, as observed at El Salt or, in the case of horse, Quebrada. Carcass processing is intensive, as shown at by the high fragmentation and extensive burning of the faunal remains.
As for small prey, leporids, birds or tortoises are also present, but the agent of accumulation is not always the same. None of the small prey assemblages is 100% anthropogenic, and only at Quebrada has no evidence of modification by other predators been positively identified. Here, however, the exploitation of small prey was not frequent (Salazar-García et al. 2013). Even though the NISP of tortoise is quite high and cut-marked tortoise plates have been found, the MNI of the taxon is small (Sanchis et al. 2013, 2015); besides, its presence in the assemblage cannot be unambiguously related to human activity, as is also the case with leporids.
At Cueva Antón (Sanchis 2012; Zilhão et al. 2016), El Salt (Machado and Pérez 2016), Bolomor (Blasco and Fernández-Peris 2012a, b; Sanchis 2012), Beneito (Martínez Valle 1996), Teixoneres (Rosell et al. 2010; Rufà et al. 2014) and Abric Romaní (Gabucio et al. 2017; Rosell et al. 2012b), modification of small animal remains by terrestrial carnivores and birds of prey, documenting primary access or the scavenging of human leftovers, is well established; in most cases, these non-anthropogenic accumulations are of leporids (e.g. at Cueva Antón, El Salt or Bolomor). However, in some Bolomor levels, there is clear evidence that leporids were, alongside tortoises, being consumed by humans (Blasco 2008; Blasco and Fernández-Peris 2012a; Sanchis 2012) and likewise at El Salt and Abric del Pastor (Pérez 2014; Sanchis et al. 2015). However, the contribution of small prey to diet was in general small and the observed inter-site variation may relate to the duration and intensity of the occupations (Sanchis 2012), as proposed for the Upper Palaeolithic (Aura et al. 2002; Fa et al. 2013; Hockett and Haws 2009; Stiner 2001; Rillardon and Brugal 2014; Villaverde et al. 1996).
Conclusion
By combining the evidence from the study of its stone tool and faunal assemblages, we have shown how the human groups responsible for the accumulation of the remains retrieved from level IV of Quebrada exploited the different resources offered by the environment in planned and flexible manner. These short-lived occupations display little investment in the structuration of the space, the pursuit of a limited number of prey taxa and a significant degree of fragmentation of the operational chains, with few refit links and a lot of tool re-sharpening and blank recycling. The large size of the assemblage relative to the area and volume of the excavation is misleading: it results from palimpsesting processes, not from the length of occupations or the intensity of activities. Comparison with other sites from the same area and period shows how this type of site occupancy is widespread, even though often masked under assemblage size and find density numbers that apparently suggest otherwise. As our results and discussion hopefully have shown, such indicators need to be assessed in the context of the associated evidence, namely that pertaining to seasonality, site function, mode of introduction and processing of prey carcasses, and economy of the debitage.
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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank G. Smith, K. Rubens, T. E. Steele and T. Dogandzic for the invitation to the Session “Connecting Middle Palaeolithic datasets: the interplay of zooarchaeological and lithic data for unravelling Neanderthal behaviour” of the SAA Meeting (2017).
Funding
Archaeological fieldwork and research at Abrigo de la Quebrada was funded by the Spanish Ministerio de la Ciencia e Innovación (HAR2011-24978, HAR2014-52671-P and HAR-2017-85153-P) and by the Generalitat Valenciana (PROMETEOII/2013/016 and PROMETEO/2017/060). NK was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG), project F2 of the Collaborative Research Center 806 (“Our Way to Europe. Culture-Environment Interaction and Human Mobility in the Late Quaternary”).
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Suppl. Fig. 1
Left: first IR stimulation temperature test of potassium feldspar sample C-L3898; a stimulation temperature combination of pIR80IR290 was used for equivalent dose estimation; the laboratory dose was recovered with a ratio of the measured to the given dose of 1.02 ± 0.02. Right: dose response curve and decay curve of a 1 mm aliquot of sample C-L3898. (PNG 114 kb)
Suppl. Table 1
Dose rate data, equivalent dose values (1 mm aliquots) and pIR80IR290 ages. m b. s. = meters below surface; KF = potassium feldspar 100–200 μm; W % = measured water content (water mass over dry sediment mass); U = Uranium; Th = Thorium; K = Potassium; age calculation is based on cosmic dose calculation after Prescott and Hutton (1994), conversion factors of Guérin et al. (2011) and an assumed measured water content of 10 ± 3%; De = equivalent dose, calculated with an arithmetic mean. The internal beta dose rate contribution of the feldspar samples was calculated by assuming a potassium content of 12.5 ± 0.5% (Huntley and Baril 1997). (DOCX 19 kb)
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Real, C., Eixea, A., Sanchis, A. et al. Abrigo de la Quebrada Level IV (Valencia, Spain): Interpreting a Middle Palaeolithic Palimpsest from a Zooarchaeological and Lithic Perspective. J Paleo Arch 3, 187–224 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41982-018-0012-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41982-018-0012-z