Introduction

In recent years, mobile dating applications (dating apps) have become increasingly popular among young adults [1]. As a form of social media, dating apps are particularly interesting to study in relation to body image given their explicit goal of facilitating rapid appraisals and evaluations from others based on visual profiles. Thus, dating apps place individuals in a context of being evaluated for their worth based almost exclusively on their appearance. This experience can be conceptualized within objectification theory [2, 3], which holds that being evaluated based on appearance is associated with negative outcomes in terms of body image including body shame, and self-surveillance [3].

In addition to being appraised and evaluated by other users, dating app use frequently involves being exposed to numerous profiles of other users, in large part curated to be consistent with thin-and-lean appearance ideals. This repeated exposure to unrealistic profiles is likely to encourage upward appearance comparisons [4]. Exposure to images of thin-and-lean appearance ideals, and engaging in unfavorable comparisons with these images, has also been shown to be associated with poor body image and the internalization of media ideals [4, 5]. This is consistent with the predictions of sociocultural theory, which holds that repeated exposure to unattainable appearance ideals in the media leads to unrealistic expectations related to one’s own appearance, and related body dissatisfaction. Thus, social media use may increase exposure to harmful appearance ideals, which can be associated with poorer body image and unhealthy behaviors in the pursuit of these ideals.

To our knowledge, only two studies have examined the associations between dating app use and body image to date. However, both of these have provided converging preliminary findings regarding the association between dating app use and poorer body image. In an initial study conducted among U.S. college students, users of Tinder, a popular dating app, reported lower body satisfaction, and higher levels of appearance comparisons, internalization of media ideals, body shame, and surveillance compared to students who did not use Tinder [6]. No gender differences in these associations emerged; however, the capacity to detect these was somewhat limited by the very small male sample [6]. In a second study conducted among users of a dating app used by sexual minority men, more frequent use of dating apps was weakly associated with greater muscularity dissatisfaction and thoughts about using anabolic steroids [7]. While these preliminary studies confirm the importance of exploring body image within the context of dating app usage, given the proliferation of dating apps in recent years, more research is needed. In particular, clarifying how these findings extend to other platforms, identifying specific relationships between body image and dating app usage compared to other types of social media, as well as clarifying gender differences in the relationships between dating app usage and body image would be important. The present study aimed to extend our current understanding of the relationships between dating app use and body image by addressing all three of these gaps. Thus, the goal of the present study was, in a mixed gender sample, to explore the relationship between dating app and other social media use and body image-related dimensions including: body shame, surveillance, body dissatisfaction, media ideal internalization, and controllability beliefs related to weight and shape. We expected that higher levels of engagement with dating apps would be associated with higher levels of body image concerns and related dimensions among both genders.

Methods

Participants and procedures

College students were invited to complete an online survey regarding the use of dating apps through flyer postings on campus. A total of 172 participants responded, two of whom identified with genders other than male or female and were excluded from this analysis. The remaining 170 participants (50% female) were aged on average 22.2 years old (ages 18−32), and about half of them were undergraduate versus graduate students. Approximately, one third of the sample (30%) were White, 60% of the sample identified as Asian, 6% identified as Latino/a, 3% identified as Black, and 3.5% identified as other (participants were allowed to select multiple identities, thus totaled percentages exceed 100%). The majority of participants (86.4%) identified as heterosexual, 8.2% identified as bisexual, 3% as queer, 1.2% identified as homosexual, and 1.2% as other. The study was approved by the institutional review board of Northeastern University and all participants provided online consent.

Measures

Sociodemographic information

Participants reported their age, gender, sexual orientation, and race/ethnicity (Table 1).

Table 1 Participant sociodemographic information
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Dating apps and social media use

Participants reported the time they spent using dating apps on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (less than one hour) to 4 (three or more hours). Participants were then invited to list the dating apps that they used. Time spent on other forms of social media was also assessed using a single item with an identical response scale. To estimate the frequency of interactions with dating apps, participants also reported whether or not they checked their dating apps whenever using their phone. In addition, degree of comfort with current level of dating app use was rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (completely uncomfortable) to 5 (completely comfortable). Finally, participants reported whether or not they experienced positive (yes/no) or negative (yes/no) feelings when using dating apps.

Body image

The objectified body consciousness scale [8] includes three subscales: body surveillance, body shame, and controllability beliefs that each includes 8 items scored on a 7-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Previous work has found the psychometric properties of the scale to be acceptable [8]. Here, alphas ranged between 0.76 and 0.85 for all subscales among males and females.

The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3 [9] Internalization subscale includes 9 items assessing the degree to which individuals endorse media ideals, scored on a 5-point scale from 1 (definitely disagree) to 5 (definitely agree). Previous research has provided support for the internal reliability of this scale in undergraduate males and females [9]. In our sample, alpha was acceptable (0.94) in both males and females.

A single item was used to assess participants’ body shape satisfaction, scored on a 6-point scale from 1 (never) to 6 (always). Previous research has suggested that the use of single-item measures for the assessment of this construct is reliable and valid [10].

Results

Descriptive statistics

Of the dating apps that participants reported using, Tinder was the most common (66%, n = 132), followed by Bumble (12.4%, n = 26). A smaller number of participants mentioned using OKCupid (8.1%, n = 17). Other dating apps included Coffee meets Bagel, Daisy, Happn, Clover, DilMil, Her, Jswipe, Howaboutwe, Shijijiayuan, Sugardaddy, Zoosk, Black People Meet, Hinge, Grinder, Feeld, Surge, Truly Madly, Plenty of Fish, and Hot or Not. Regarding the body image outcomes, significant gender differences were found for media ideal internalization and body surveillance with women reporting higher levels than males.

Most participants described spending less than 1 h a day on dating apps (77% of men and 84% of women). However, a small proportion of participants reported spending one to two hours a day on dating apps (11% of women and 12.5% of men), or more than two hours a day (4% of women and 6% of men). Participants described spending more time on other types of social media, with 33% of men and 54% of women reporting spending more than two hours a day on other types of social media. Approximately, 50% of men and 30% of women reported always or sometimes checking their dating apps when checking their phone for another reason, such as when receiving a text message. Around half of the female participants, 56.5%, and 60.5% of male participants reported experiencing positive feelings when using dating apps. In contrast, 35.3% of women and 18.6% of men reported experiencing negative feelings when using dating apps.

Associations with body image dimensions

Among females, experiencing body shape satisfaction was negatively correlated with more negative feelings when using dating apps. In addition, being more comfortable with amount of dating app use was negatively associated with body shame although not significantly (Table 2). Spending more than 1 h a day on dating apps was positively associated with higher levels of body surveillance, although this just missed significance. However, no further relationships emerged between dating app use and dimensions of body image. In contrast, more time spent on other types of social media was associated with lower levels of body shape satisfaction, higher levels of body surveillance, and levels of media ideal internalization. In addition, an association emerged with higher levels of body shame, although it did not meet significance.

Table 2 Gender differences in means for outcome variables and bivariate correlations among women (n = 85) and men (n = 85)
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Among males, a different pattern emerged with a number of dimensions of dating app usage revealing associations with body image dimensions. Greater levels of positive feelings when using dating apps were associated with higher levels of body shame, higher levels of media ideal internalization, and lower levels of controllability beliefs. In addition, negative feelings when using dating apps were associated with lower levels of media ideal internalization. Frequent checking of dating apps was associated with higher levels of body shame and lower levels of controllability beliefs. Finally, spending more than an hour a day on dating apps was associated with higher levels of body shame and lower levels of controllability beliefs, while greater comfort with the amount of dating app use was positively correlated with body shape satisfaction. Time spent on other forms of social media, however, was not related with dimensions of body image.

Discussion

The present study examined the relationship between dating app use and body image dimensions among a diverse sample of male and female college students. Overall, findings suggested that patterns varied by gender, with stronger relationships between body image dimensions and dating app usage emerging among men. In contrast, stronger relationships between broad social media use and dimensions of body image emerged among women.

Specifically, our findings revealed that among men, higher levels of body shame were associated with more frequent use and frequent checking of dating apps, and experiencing more positive emotions on dating apps. Similar but opposite valence relationships emerged with controllability beliefs related to weight and shape, such that lower levels of controllability beliefs were associated with more frequent use, frequent checking of dating apps, and experiencing more positive emotions on dating apps. That is, individuals who did not endorse the idea that body shape and weight are malleable, tended to check dating apps more and experience positive feelings. Importantly, these findings are cross-sectional, and therefore do not inform the direction of these relationships. However, they seem to suggest that a subgroup of men who use dating apps more frequently also experience high levels of body image shame and the perception of having less control over their weight and shape. Thus, perhaps young men with higher body image concerns might find dating apps to be a more positive space compared to offline, perhaps due to the increased control over self-presentation.

Interestingly, we also observed that among young men, lower levels of media ideal internalization were associated with experiencing fewer negative emotions in the context of using dating apps, and experiencing more positive emotions. This was an unexpected finding. One interpretation might be that young men with high levels of internalization, find dating apps to be a comfortable space, due to the control over self-presentation, as well as a space that is consistent with their worldview. In contrast, young men with lower levels of media internalization may adopt a more critical stance related to appearance ideals, and the discourse equating self-worth with one’s capacity to meet these standards, and thus find dating apps to be a frustrating environment.

To date, few studies have examined the relationships between body image and dating app use among men, particularly among predominantly heterosexual men, and these findings are, therefore, novel. As mentioned previously, a useful framework for conceptualizing the relationship between dating app use and body image is sexual objectification theory [2] that highlights how individuals who are appraised as sexual objects within the male gaze are susceptible to body image concerns. It has been suggested that in Western society, while heterosexual women and gay men might be most vulnerable [3], all individuals are increasingly subjected to sexual objectification. Furthermore, the few and low magnitude gender differences found in terms of body image suggest that the men in our sample might form a group with slightly higher levels of concerns. Thus, it may be that for heterosexual men who experience themselves as failing to meet standards of attractiveness and therefore poorly judged by this objectifying gaze, dating apps offer a unique space in which they have more control over how they present themselves to that gaze.

Although few relationships emerged among women, body satisfaction was associated with experiencing less negative feelings when using dating apps. In addition, use of other types of social media was associated with poorer body image, including lower body satisfaction, higher body surveillance, higher media ideal internalization, and high body shame although this relationship just failed to meet significance. The lack of a more consistent pattern of associations is somewhat in contrast with previous findings documenting a relationship between the use of Tinder and poorer body image among a largely female sample [6], which might be explained by methodological differences in sampling. In addition, the relationship between poor body image and use of other types of social media is consistent with previous findings [4, 11].

Our study limitations include the cross-sectional design, and the use of a single item to assess body satisfaction. In addition, larger samples that allow for comparisons between platforms that are largely designed for heterosexual users, such as Tinder, versus those that target sexual minorities would be important. Finally, future research should aim to use designs that allow for the examination of the directionality of relationships using more complex statistical designs, both at the state, and at the trait levels, as well as associations with body change behaviors.

Nevertheless, in conclusion, these findings extend our understanding of the relationships between social media and body image by highlighting that dating app use is more strongly related to body image concerns among men. As dating apps and other forms of social media continue to become increasingly popular, broadening our understanding of which forms of social media use may be harmful, and for which vulnerable groups, remains an important area of investigation.