Abstract
The Hatu gold deposit is the largest historical gold producer of the West Junggar, western China, with an Au reserve of about 62 t. The orebodies were controlled by NE-, EW-, and NW-trending subsidiary faults associated with the Anqi fault. This deposit exhibits characteristics typical of a fault-controlled lode system, and the orebodies consist of auriferous quartz veins and altered wall rocks within Early Carboniferous volcano-sedimentary rocks. Three stages of mineralization have been identified in the Hatu gold deposit: the early pyrite-albite-quartz stage, the middle polymetallic sulfides-ankerite-quartz stage, and late quartz-calcite stage. The sulfur isotopic values of pyrite and arsenopyrite vary in a narrow range from − 0.8‰ to 1.3‰ and an average of 0.4‰, the near-zero δ34S values implicate the thorough homogenization of the sulfur isotopes during the metamorphic dehydration of the Early Carboniferous volcano-sedimentary rocks. Lead isotopic results of pyrite and arsenopyrite (206Pb/204Pb = 17.889–18.447, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.492–15.571, 208Pb/204Pb = 37.802–38.113) are clustered between orogenic and mantle/upper crust lines, indicating that the lead was mainly sourced from the hostrocks within the Early Carboniferous Tailegula Formation. The characteristics of S and Pb isotopes suggest that the ore-forming metals of the Hatu orogenic gold deposit are of metamorphogenic origin, associated with the continental collision between the Yili-Kazakhstan and Siberian plates during the Late Carboniferous.
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1 Introduction
In the West Junggar, western China, more than 200 gold deposits have been identified, with estimated reserves of over 100 t (Shen and Jin 1993). The Hatu gold deposit, with an Au reserve of 62 t and average grade of 5 g Au/t, is considered to be one of the most representative gold deposits in this region. The orebody is hosted in Early Carboniferous volcano-sedimentary rocks (Fan et al. 1998; Xiao et al. 2010b). There are still some disputes about the ore genesis of the Hatu gold deposit. Some researchers have classified the deposit as intrusion-related deposit, exclusively attributed to the magmatic hydrothermal processes during the Late Paleozoic, based simply on the temporal and spatial associations, as well as the similar stable isotopic ratios with granitoids (Zhu et al. 2013; Wang and Zhu 2015; Wang et al. 2019a, b; An et al. 2023). Shen et al. (2016) suggested that in addition to the involvement of magmatic fluids, the mineralization in Hatu gold deposit incorporates the contribution of mantle-derived fluids. However, other studies favor the fact that the Hatu gold deposit recognized as orogenic-type are the consequences of crustal metamorphic processes, specifically formed during the continental collision regime in the Late Carboniferous-Permian (Permo-Carboniferous) (Chen and Zhang 1991; Chen 1996; Ding et al. 2019; Zheng et al. 2022).
To clarify the ore genesis and ore-forming mechanism of the Hatu deposit, we revisit the ore geology and ore-forming conditions, and conclude that the deposit is a typical fault-controlled lode system formed during post-subduction collisional orogenesis, i.e. orogenic-type gold deposit. We also summarize available the sulfur and lead isotope data, including those obtained by the authors, and thereby, determine the source of ore-forming fluids and metals (Richards and Kerrich 1993; Chen et al. 2004a, b; Hodkiewicz et al. 2009). Finally, we propose a genetic model of orogenic-type gold mineralization in West Junggar and adjacent areas.
2 Regional geology
The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), also referred to as the Altaid tectonic collage or Central Asian Orogenic System (Fig. 1a), represents a significant Phanerozoic orogenic belt and has experienced a complex history of orogenic development, characterized by multiple stages of orogenic development including continental accretion, post-collisional events, and intracontinental orogeny (Khain et al. 2002; Kröner et al. 2007; Xiao and Kusky 2009; Choulet et al. 2011, 2012; Pirajno et al. 2011). It preserves the geological evidence of the Paleo-Asian Ocean’s closure (Coleman 1989; Şengör et al. 1993; Şengör and Natal’In 1996; Xiao et al. 2010a; Hong and Liu 2021). The Early Paleozoic southwestern Paleo Asian Ocean (PAO) was composed of four branches: Irtysh-Zaysan Ocean, Junggar-Balkhash Ocean, Uralian Ocean, and Turkestan Ocean (Filippova et al. 2002), and the former two played a significant role in the evolution of West Junggar Orogenic Belt. The CAOB occupies the region between the Siberian Craton to the north and the North China and Tarim Cratons to the south (Xiao et al. 2003; Buckman and Aitchison 2004; Windley et al. 2007; Kröner et al. 2014).
Tectonic locations of West Junggar and the Hatu gold deposit. a Simplified geological map of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (modified after Xiao et al. 2008); b Simplified geological map illustrating tectonic units in North Xinjiang (modified after Chen et al. 2012a); c Regional geological map of West Junggar showing the location and geological setting of Hatu gold deposit (modified after Xu et al. 2012)
The West Junggar is situated within the central part of the CAOB, bordered by the Altai Orogen to the north, the Tianshan Orogen to the south, and the Junggar Basin to the east (Fig. 1b). Present-day West Junggar has undergone a complicated and protracted geological evolution as oceanic crust has been subducted and arcs accreted since the Late Neoproterozoic (Xiao et al. 2008). Based on their unique geological features and evolutionary history, three major lithotectonic units can be recognized in this region: southern, central, and northern West Junggar (Xu et al. 2013). Among them, the central West Junggar features the occurrence of volcano-sedimentary rock successions from the Early Carboniferous, which can be classically divided into Xibeikulasi, Baogutu, and Tailegula Formations from bottom to the top. The Xibeikulasi Formation comprises tuffaceous conglomerate, greywacke, and lithic tuff, and the overlying Baogutu Formation comprises tuffaceous siltstone and tuff (Guo et al. 2010; Shen et al. 2016). The Tailegula Formation consists of Carbonaceous mudstone, siltstone, gray-green tuff, basalt, and jasper (Wang and Zhu 2007).
Prior to the Late Carboniferous, two distinct episodes of plutonism are recognized in the West Junggar and are spatially and temporally separated (Zheng et al. 2019), between ca.533–485 and 445–321 Ma (Zheng et al. 2019; Ren et al. 2014; Xu et al. 2012; Chen et al. 2019). Plutons of the older period are exclusively found within the southern West Junggar, appearing as small and isolated bodies, and these deformed plutons have been fragmented and involved into the Ordovician to Devonian accretionary complexes (Zheng et al. 2019) and demonstrate discernible enrichment in LREE and LILE, along with a depletion in HFSE (Xu et al. 2013; Zheng et al. 2019; Liao et al. 2021). The oldest is recorded by the Kekesayi pluton, which comprises two distinct age groups of 579–500 Ma and the older group of zircon grains yielded a U–Pb weighted mean age of 572 ± 4 Ma (Zheng et al. 2019). Plutons from the younger period are commonly located in the northern West Junggar, absolute age estimates for this episode have it beginning at approximately ~ 445 Ma and ending at ~ 320 Ma, and mainly involves the Zharma-Saur and Boshchekul-Chingiz arc (Li et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2018).
Subsequent to the Late Carboniferous, the West Junggar developed pronounced occurrence of anorogenic (A)-type granitoid intrusions that contain alkaline granite, alkali feldspar granite, and monzogranite (Chen and Jahn 2004). These include the Hatu alkali feldspar granite (305 ± 4 Ma, Gao et al. 2014), Karamay monzogranite (304 ± 5 Ma, Yang et al. 2014), Akebasitao granite (290 ± 8 Ma, Han et al. 2006; 316 ± 2 Ma, Li et al. 2016), and Miaoergou alkali feldspar granite (309 ± 1 Ma, Hu et al. 2015). These granite plutons signify a remarkable vertical crustal growth during the Late Paleozoic and suggests a post-collisional setting throughout West Junggar (Han et al. 1997, 2006; Xu et al. 2012; Chen et al. 2015; Liu et al. 2019).
Left-lateral strike-slip faults of Darbut, Mayile, and Baerleike outline the domino-type tectonic system (Feng et al. 1989; Chen et al. 2011; Lin et al. 2017). The southern West Junggar terrane comprises successive island arc and accretionary complexes separated by northeast trending faults (Li et al. 2014), while the northern West Junggar terrane is characterized by east–west trending faults (Yang et al. 2020). In the central West Junggar, the prominent sinistral transform Darbut fault, extending over 200 km in length and reaching depths exceeding 6 km), has experienced substantial nonferrous metal mineralization on its northern side (Yang et al. 2012). Subordinate northeast trending faults such as the Anqi and Hatu faults generally control the formation and distribution of ore deposits in Hatu gold mining district (Fig. 1c).
3 Deposit geology
The Hatu gold mining district is situated on the south slope of Mount Hatu near the Darbut fault and hosts gold deposits such as Hatu, Qi-II, Qi-III, Qi-IV, Qi-V, Gezigou, and Mandongshan (Fig. 1c). The strata exposed in Hatu gold deposit is the Early Carboniferous Tailegula Formation, which is composed of a succession of basalt and tuff interbedded with tuffaceous siltstone and jasper rocks (Fig. 2; WRGKHGD Co., Ltd. 2018). LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb analysis indicates ages of 315 ± 4 and 328 ± 2 Ma for the basalt and tuff, respectively (Wang and Zhu 2007; Tang et al. 2012). Zhu et al. (2013) reported that unaltered diabase dikes, which are attributed to post-mineralization magmatic activity, have yielded zircon U–Pb age of 295.4 ± 4.6 Ma, providing a minimum age for gold mineralization.
a Geological map of the Hatu gold deposit (modified from WRGKHGD Co. Ltd. 2018) illustrating the distribution of the main orebodies; b Exploration levels depicting the orebody geology of the Hatu gold deposit; c Selective exploration profile of the Hatu gold deposit showing the occurrence of gold orebodies (modified from WRGKHGD Co., Ltd. 2018)
Structural deformation, including faults and folds, is widespread within the Hatu gold deposit (Fig. 3), with orebodies predominantly hosted in east–west and/or northwest trending subsidiary faults and fractures that are correlated with the Anqi fault (Fig. 2b). The Anqi fault represents ductile shear deformation mainly involving mylonitized volcanic-sedimentary rocks from the Tailegula Formation with mylonitic fabric and alteration, indicating a greenschist and sub-greenschist facies metamorphic condition during the ductile deformation (Shen et al. 2016). Kinematic indicators, such as composite planar (S-C) fabrics defined by quartz and arsenopyrite, suggest a top to the right shear sense (Fig. 3d, e), and vertical folds indicate that near NNE trending compression occurred in the deposit (Fig. 3a).
Photographs from the Hatu gold deposit showing a Vertical folds in tuffaceous sandstone; b A parallel set of en echelon quartz veins in tuffite, with pencil for scale; c An auriferous quartz vein exhibits an elongated slab shape with crack-seal structures; d S-C fabric showing right-lateral shearing with strongly foliated altered basalt; the early-stage milky, barren Q1 vein crosscut and dislocated by middle-stage gray, auriferous quartz-sulfide veinlets; e Sheared and altered wall rock, showing foliation defined by early-stage quartz and tuffaceous materials; middle-stage polymetallic sulfides and quartz are observed in veinlet that cuts the foliation; arsenopyrite fish showing right-lateral sheared sense; f Deformed Q1 vein with Py2 disseminated in the adjacent silicified and carbonated wall rocks; g The early-stage pyrite and arsenopyrite are fragmented and exhibit evidence of directional stretching. Q, quartz; Au, native gold; Py, pyrite; Apy, arsenopyrite
Nearly a hundred individual orebodies have been identified in the Hatu gold deposit (Shen et al. 2010; WRGKHGD Co. Ltd., 2018). Individual orebodies typically exhibit a range in grade from 4.3 to 16.6 g Au/t, with some reaching up to 300 g Au/t (Zhang 2003). Orebody L27-8, the dominant industrial concealed orebody, strikes northeast or west–east (Fig. 2c), spanning a strike length of 800 m, with an average thickness of 4.23 m, and a depth of 1046 m (WRGKHGD Co., Ltd. 2018). The hydrothermal veins also display the occurrence of balk reappearence and compound branches (Fig. 2c), presenting as the form of stratiform and lenses with variable degrees of wall rock alteration (Fig. 4; Xiao et al. 2010b). The primary gangue minerals consist of quartz, calcite, albite, muscovite, sericite, chlorite, apatite, and ankerite, while the dominant ore minerals comprise pyrite and arsenopyrite, accompanied by minor amounts of chalcopyrite, native gold, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, electrum, cobaltite, and bournonite. The gold mineralization is closely associated with silicification, pyritization, and arsenopyritization (Fig. 4).
Orebody characteristics of Hatu gold deposit. a L27-14 orebody in the 725 level (599 m b.g.s); b Auriferous albite-quartz vein containing altered wallrock breccias; c Smoky-gray quartz breccia within milky-white quartz vein; d Muscovite flakes in milky quartz; e Discontinuous sulfide veinlets that are subparallel to the host rock wall. Q, quartz; Ab, albite; Ms, muscovite; Au, native gold; Py, pyrite
Based on the fieldwork, petrographic observations, cross-cutting relationships, and their microscopy characteristics, the mineralization process of the Hatu gold deposit can be divided into three distinct stages, early, middle, and late (Fig. 5). The pyrite-albite-quartz stage (early-stage) is indicated by coarse-grained milky quartz veins (Q1) containing coarse-grained albite, euhedral pyrite (Py1), and some arsenopyrite (Apy1) (Fig. 5a, h). Py1 grains are mainly cubic and pyritohedron ranging in size from 0.3 to 2 mm (Fig. 5d), whereas Apy1 grains are mostly occurred as arsenopyrite twin crystal with sizes ranging from 0.2 to 2 mm (Fig. 5f). Unaltered or deformed Py1 shows oscillatory growth zoning, indicative of changing fluid composition in a stable environment (Fig. 6). The barren milky quartz veins, ranging from a few centimeters to a few meters in thickness, commonly suggest deformation including asymmetric folds and S-C fabrics such as arsenopyrite fish (Fig. 3e, g), and book-inclined features, indicating a compressional setting. The polymetallic sulfides-ankerite-quartz stage (middle-stage) is identified by veinlets that are < 1–3 mm thick (Fig. 5g). Gold was mainly produced in this stage in the form of inclusions or fissure fillings in middle-stage quartz (Q2), arsenopyrite (Apy2), pyrite (Py2), chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite (Fig. 5i, j). Py2 and Apy2 are anhedral to euhedral, and they form grains with sizes ranging from hundreds to tens of microns (Fig. 5h, j). The absence of deformed textures in the middle-stage minerals indicates their formation in a tensile shear setting. The quartz-calcite stage (late stage) is characterized by the deposition of barren quartz-calcite veins crosscutting the earlier formed hydrothermal veins, minerals, and wall rocks (Fig. 5c, l). In these veinlets, transparent and euhedral quartz crystals (Q3) grew toward vugs that were subsequently filled by calcite, implying the calcite precipitated somewhat later than the quartz. Additionally, no pyrite or other sulfides are observed in this stage, and geodes can be noted in certain late-stage veins (Fig. 5k). The mineral paragenesis sequence is given in Fig. 7.
Photographs showing characteristics and cross-cutting relationships of hydrothermal veins from different mineralization stages in the Hatu gold deposit. a Quartz vein ore in altered basalt enclosing irregular wall slivers; b Native gold occurs as individual grains in quartz vein; c One representative specimen displays cross-cutting relationships of all three-stage veins. The early-stage quartz-albite vein was intersected by middle-stage sulfide-ankerite-quartz veinlets, and then the quartz-calcite vein of late-stage cross-cut both early and middle stage veins; d The early-stage barren quartz vein with coarse and pyritohedron pyrite in the adjacent wall rocks; e Coarse Py1 developed in the Q1 vein; f Coexistence of euhedral Apy1 and Py1 in reflected light; g Fractured quartz vein crosscut by middle-stage sulfide-ankerite-quartz veinlets; h Disseminated Apy2 and Py2 coexist with comb-textured ankerite, deformed Q1 shows deformation lamellae and sweeping undulose extinction; i The calcite vein of late-stage cross-cut the middle-stage vein; j Coexisting middle-stage Apy2, Po, and Cpy containing intergranular native gold; k The late-stage quartz crystals grew in cavities, later filled by calcite crystals formed in extensional tectonic setting; l The early-stage Apy1 was crosscut by the late-stage calcite vein. Q, quartz; Py, pyrite; Apy, arsenopyrite; Cc, calcite; Ank, ankerite; Cpy, chalcopyrite; Po, pyrrhotite; Au, native gold
Backscattered electron image and corresponding qualitative element maps were obtained using energy dispersive spectroscopy mapping on a scanning electron microscope, illustrating compositional variations in Py1. a The core of euhedral Py1 contains native gold; b Backscattered electron image exhibits oscillatory growth zoning; c Bright zones in backscattered electron image correspond to high As contents; d, e The Py1 contains comparably low Au and Ag concentrations; f The occurrence of sphalerite inclusions in Py1
Paragenesis of hydrothermal minerals in the Hatu gold deposit
4 Isotope analytics and results
Samples representing all three mineralization stages were collected from orebodies L27-8, L27-17, and L27-14 at level 725 [699 m below the current ground surface (b.g.s)] and level 853 (557 m b.g.s) (Fig. 2b).
4.1 Sulfur isotope
Samples for sulfur and lead isotope analyses were collected from the quartz veins and altered rocks. Sulfide minerals were handpicked after conventional processing techniques including crushing, oscillation, and heavy liquid and magnetic separation. All separated minerals were further purified by handpicking under a microscope to at least 99% purity. For sulfur isotope analysis, FeS2 and FeAsS were converted to SO2 by the vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) method. Then, the SO2 was purified and collected for analysis of the isotopic composition using a Delta v Plus gas isotope ratio mass spectrometer at the Analytical Laboratory of the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology, China. Sulfur isotope values were reported according to the standard δ34S notation of per mille (‰) relative to Vienna Canyon Diablo Troilite (V-CDT) with an analytical uncertainty (2σ) of ± 0.2‰.
Fifteen samples of ore-bearing sulfides were obtained from the Hatu gold deposit with δ34S values of − 0.8‰–1.3‰ and an average of 0.4‰ (Table S1). The δ34S values of the pyrite and arsenopyrite samples had very narrow ranges and were generally close to zero. The five pyrite samples had δ34S values of − 0.8‰–1.0‰, and the 10 arsenopyrite samples had δ34S values of − 0.7‰–1.3‰.
4.2 Lead isotope
The lead isotopic composition was measured by using a Phoenix thermal ionization mass spectrometer at the Analytical Laboratory of the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology, China. All lead ratios were calibrated according to the values of the NBS 981 standard. For analysis, samples were dissolved by using HF and HClO4 in crucibles, which was followed by basic anion exchange resin to purify the lead. The external reproducibility of the lead ratios was 0.2% for 206Pb/204Pb, 0.2% for 207Pb/204Pb, and 0.6% for 208Pb/204Pb at the 2σ level.
The measured isotopic composition of lead was compared with previously published data (Table S2) (Shen and Jin 1993; Zheng et al. 2007; Huang 2015; Weng et al. 2020; Zhi et al. 2021). The sulfides from the Hatu gold deposit had 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pb ranges of 17.889–18.447, 15.492–15.571, and 37.802–38.113, respectively, and averages of 17.996, 15.529, and 37.905, respectively. These similar results suggest that the lead isotopic composition was relatively consistent and that these sulfides may have derived from the same source.
5 Discussion
5.1 Sulfur and lead isotopic compositions and their geological implications
Different sulfides are the primary resource for various metals and sulfur isotope data can be used to effectively constrain the origin of the ore-forming fluid and reveal the gold deposition conditions. The sulfur isotopic composition of sulfides in hydrothermal deposits is determined by the sulfur isotopic composition of the ore-forming fluid as well as the temperature, oxidation–reduction potential (Eh), and pH at the location of mineralization (Ohmoto 1972; Kovalenko et al. 2004; Seal 2006). Whereas the first parameter refers to the source, the others relate to the physicochemical conditions for deposition. The sulfur isotopic compositions of orogenic gold deposits are highly variable. Hodkiewicz et al. (2009) showed that the δ34S values of hydrothermal pyrite from orogenic gold deposits of the Eastern Goldfields Province in the Yilgarn Craton had a wide range of − 10‰–12‰. When orogenic gold deposits have a wide range of δ34S values, this can result in puzzling interpretations (LaFlamme et al. 2018). However, a relatively tight clustering of δ34S values is generally interpreted to indicate that the sulfur source was isotopically uniform (Kishida and Kerrich 1987).
The sulfur isotopic composition of pyrite and arsenopyrite at the Hatu gold deposit had a relatively limited range of − 0.8‰–1.3‰ (Table S1). The near-zero δ34S values of gold-related sulfides from the Hatu gold deposit overlap with those of most lode gold deposits such as Sawayaerdun (Chen et al. 2012b), Juneau (Goldfarb et al. 1991), and Bendigo (Jia et al. 2001) for which the ore-forming fluid was concluded to be metamorphic in origin (Phillips and Powell 2010). However, sulfides δ34S values at Hatu also indicate a comparatively homogeneous magmatic origin (Fig. 8b), as well as the possibility of basalt cannot be precluded. Directly comparing δ34S values with those of geological reservoirs appears insufficient for accurately ascertaining their source, but they do provide a remarkable amount of information.
a Histogram illustrating the sulfur isotope composition of sulfides from this study, alongside data previously published for the Hatu gold deposit; b Summary of the δ34S values of sulfides from the Hatu gold mining district, as well as the sulfur isotope composition of various terrestrial reservoirs. References for the ranges of major sulfur deposits and other deposits are given in the text
The tight unimodal distribution of sulfides δ34S values at Hatu is indicative of a stable homogenous fluid reservoir (Fig. 8a). The fluid oxygen fugacity constraints indicate that the ore-forming fluid at Hatu was reducing (Fan et al. 1998), and this is also suggested by the paragenesis of arsenopyrite-pyrrhotite-pyrite, and the existence of CH4 and H2S (Shen et al. 2016), and the absence of hematite and sulfates in the ore and wall rocks (Fig. 7). In such a situation, gold migrated as a bisulfide complex such as Au(HS)2− or AuHS (Hayashi and Ohmoto 1991; Tomkins 2010). Because the fractionation factor of aqueous H2S and solid sulfides was less than 1‰, the δ34S values of sulfides at Hatu indicate that the sulfur in the ore-forming fluid was reduced and was from a specific source (Ohmoto and Rye 1979). Furthermore, the invariable δ34S signatures in arsenopyrite and pyrite suggest that the ore-forming fluid of the Hatu gold deposit obtained sulfur from the same reservoir throughout its evolution. Integration of new and previous data indicates that sulfides in the Hatu gold mining district mainly had δ34S values of − 3‰–4‰, except for the Mandongshan gold deposit with low δ34S values of < − 3‰ (Fig. 8b). Such a remarkably uniform sulfur isotopic composition excludes the mixing of ore-forming fluids from multiple sources and points to a unique genetic process and source region. However, the low δ34S values of the Mandongshan deposit do not appear to be the result of oxidation during the mineralization process such as for the Shanggong gold deposit (Chen et al. 2004b). Mineralogical and geochemical studies of the ore and wall rocks have shown that the fluid properties are characteristic of a reduced lode gold deposit (Zhang and Zhu 2017). Hence, isotope exchange during fluid-rock interaction along the pathways of the ore-forming fluid may have led to the low δ34S values of the Mandongshan gold deposit.
Geochronological studies have dated the Early Carboniferous volcanic and sedimentary rocks to 357.5 ± 5.4 to 315 ± 4.0 Ma (Wang and Zhu 2007; An and Zhu 2009; Guo et al. 2010; Tang et al. 2012). A number of fossils and trace fossils have been observed in the strata, which indicate a marine facies environment (Jin and Li 1999; Gong and Zong 2015). These similar features indicate that the volcanic and sedimentary rocks may have similar origins and thus similar sulfur isotopic compositions.
Investigations in the metasedimentary and metabasaltic rocks of New Zealand and Canada have been suggested to be important source for orogenic gold deposit, confined that the gold, sulfur and arsenic are released from enrichments in sedimentary pyrite (Pitcairn et al. 2006, 2010). Thermodynamic modeling reveals that the sulfidation process of chlorite/muscovite to form pyrrhotite release water and a significant amount of Au can be liberated from the process of the pyrite to pyrrhotite transition (Zhong et al. 2015). Although framboidal pyrite, host in the carbonaceous mudstone of the Early Carboniferous volcano-sedimentary rocks, exhibits a wide range of δ34S values (–26.7‰–54.0‰; An et al. 2023), the median value, at 0.9‰, is comparable to the values obtained in hydrothermal pyrite and arsenopyrite at Hatu gold deposit, ranging from − 0.8‰ to 1.3‰ (Table S1 and Fig. 8b). Thus, we interpret this similarity as the result of homogenization of sulfur during metamorphism (Chen and Zhang 1991; Groves et al. 2003; Chang et al. 2008). The near-zero δ34S values observed at Hatu suggests the thorough homogenization of the original sulfur isotope during the metamorphism dehydration of the Early Carboniferous volcano-sedimentary rocks, coinciding with the release of gold and other elements.
Lead isotope, being widely accepted as an important tracer, can be utilized to interpret the material source and tectonic environment of ore formation (White et al. 2016). Pyrite and arsenopyrite in early and middle stages of the Hatu gold deposit have narrow ranges of 207Pb/204Pb (15.492–15.571, average: 15.529) and 208Pb/204Pb (37.802–38.113, average: 37.905) ratios, suggesting a common source of lead. Previously published data show that whole-rock analyses of the Early Carboniferous volcanic rocks revealed that the 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pb ratios had ranges of 17.147–19.744, 15.392–15.627, and 37.628–38.838, respectively, and averages of 18.022, 15.497, and 38.137, respectively (Table S2). Feldspar analyses indicated that the Late Paleozoic granitoid rocks had 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pb ratios of 17.690–18.330, 15.260–15.500, and 37.130–38.080, respectively, with averages of 18.016, 15.398, and 37.635, respectively (Table S2). The 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb ratios of the Late Paleozoic granitoids had quite large variations.
The 207Pb/204Pb-206Pb/204Pb diagram (Fig. 9a) showed that the sulfides fell between the evolution curves of the mantle and orogen (Zartman and Doe 1981). These results indicate that juvenile crustal material, which is widely distributed throughout West Junggar (Jahn et al. 2000), contributed variable amounts of Pb to the ore. Similarly, the 208Pb/204Pb-206Pb/204Pb diagram (Fig. 9b) plotted the ore samples across the curves of the orogen, mantle, and upper crust, and most were clustering between the curves of the lower crust and orogen (Zartman and Doe 1981). The Pb isotope data of the sulfides are notably higher than the Late Paleozoic granitoid rocks, and the latter were mainly distributed below the evolution curve of the orogen. This indicates that the sulfides cannot have originated from Paleozoic granitoid rocks. In particular, the 207Pb/204Pb-206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb-206Pb/204Pb diagrams showed that the ratios for sulfides followed trends similar to those of the Early Carboniferous volcanic rocks. Therefore, it is highly probable that the Pb in sulfides originated predominantly from Early Carboniferous volcanic rocks, which possessed Pb isotopes characteristic of the lower crust and/or mantle reservoirs. Many orogenic gold deposits throughout the world have shown similar Pb isotopic compositions for the ore and wall rock. (Ho et al. 1995; Meffre et al. 2008; Mortensen et al. 2010; Aibai et al. 2021; Muhtar et al. 2021).
Lead isotopic compositions of the Hatu gold deposit and related lithologies (base map from Zartman and Doe 1981)
In summary, the S-Pb isotopic composition was remarkably similar throughout the Hatu gold deposit, which indicates that it may have originated from a large and uniform fluid and metal source reservoir. The Early Carboniferous volcanic and sedimentary rocks are a suitable candidate for the fluid and material reservoirs of the deposit.
5.2 Genetic type of the Hatu gold deposit
The West Junggar is tectonically correlated with East Kazakhstan, and recent studies have showed that the northern and central West Junggar are extensions of the Kazakhstan continent to the east (Windley et al. 2007; Chen et al. 2010, 2015; Li et al. 2022). In the Late Silurian, the southern West Junggar terrane collided with the Yili Block to constituted the Kazakhstan continent, and thereafter, the West Junggar has experienced the same tectonic processes as the Yili-Kazakhstan continental plate (Ren et al. 2018). Li et al. (2022) interpreted the P-T-t path of the collision between Yili-Kazakhstan and Siberian continental plates during the Late Carboniferous as occurring in three distinct stages, prograde (ca. 322–300 Ma), near-isothermal decompression (ca. 300 Ma) and retrograde (ca. 300–268 Ma). Furthermore, Zheng et al. (2020) divided the geodynamic evolution of West Junggar into subduction stage (ca. 572–324 Ma), collision stage (ca. 324–318 Ma), and post-collision stage (ca. 318–263 Ma).
Previous investigations using different methodologies have indicated that the Hatu deposit formed during the Permo-Carboniferous (Table 1). Shen and Jin (1993) initially ascertained a 309 ± 4 Ma 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of the fluid inclusions within quartz. Li et al. (2000) reported a Rb–Sr isochron age from fluid inclusions in auriferous quartz of 290 ± 5 Ma; this date was interpreted as approximating the timing of alteration and mineralization. The mineralization timing and its correlation with the Late Paleozoic tectonic evolution suggest that the formation of the Hatu deposit coincided with geodynamic processes transitioning from collisional compression to extension (Chen and Zhang 1991; Zhang et al. 2013; Li et al. 2014; Wu et al. 2018; Ding et al. 2019). Additionally, the geological evidence from Hatu indicates that the early-stage veins were structurally deformed (Fig. 3f), fractured and recemented by non-deformed middle-stage stockworks (Figs. 3e, 5g). The late-stage veins are open-space fillings that crosscut earlier veins (Fig. 5k), indicating that the mineralization is associated with transitions from compressive to transitional compression-to-extension, and ultimately to extensional settings, consistent with the Late Paleozoic tectonic evolution of West Junggar. The S and Pb isotopic features indicate that the ore metals in the Hatu gold deposit originated from metamorphic processes. Previous studies show that the ore-forming fluid is characterized by low salinity (< 10 wt% NaCl equiv.) and high CO2 content (Fan et al. 1998; Li 2016), which is similar to metamorphic fluid in origin (Chen et al. 2007). The ore-forming fluid of Hatu deposit also exhibited high δ18OH2O values (8.5‰–12.2‰) compared to magmatic fluid, indicating a metamorphic origin, and δD values ranging from –87‰ to –105‰ (Shen et al. 2016). The CO2 gas extracted from the quartz fluid inclusions has δ13C values ranging from –9.7‰ to –13.9‰, suggesting a carbonaceous sedimentary source like the host Tailegula Formation (Shen et al. 2016). Therefore, we propose that the Hatu gold deposit represents a typical fault-controlled lode system formed during collisional orogenesis, classified as an orogenic-type gold deposit (Goldfarb et al. 2001; Chen and Fu 1992; Chen 2006, 2013; Zhou et al. 2014b, 2022a, b, 2023; Zhang et al. 2020).
The onset of Permo-Carboniferous extensional tectonics following the collision between the Yili-Kazakhstan and Siberian continental plates signifies a tectonic regime marked by both magmatism and the development of hydrothermal gold deposits. The granite plutons surrounding the Hatu deposit, i.e. Hatu, Akebasitao, Miaoergou granites, yield zircon U-Pb ages of 305 ± 4 Ma, 290 ± 8 Ma and 309 ± 1 Ma, respectively (Han et al. 2006; Gao et al. 2014; Hu et al. 2015). The gold mineralization ages likely indicate that the Hatu deposit formed concurrently with the granitic magmatism.
The broad spatial and temporal relationship between orogenic gold deposits and these granitic plutons and their related dikes has been noted in many orogenic gold provinces throughout the world (Boorder 2012; Zhou et al. 2014a, 2015; Goldfarb et al. 2001, 2005; Taylor et al. 2022; Goldfarb and Pitcairn 2023). Orogenic gold deposits are commonly associated with a regional thermal event in convergent margins including accretionary and collisional orogens, leading to both magmatism and metamorphism, where the latter serves as the source of ore-forming fluids and metals (Groves et al. 1998; Chen et al. 2022). It is crucial to emphasize that the magma emplacement and metamorphic fluid migration may not necessarily simultaneous (Chen 2013; Goldfarb and Pitcairn 2023). Besides, geological and geochemical characteristics also illustrate a genetic connection between gold mineralization and magmatism is untenable in Hatu gold deposit. Reduced intrusion-related gold deposits, characterized by low-grade and large tonnage, typically feature ore occurrences within auriferous sheeted vein system situated in pluton cupolas (Hart and Goldfarb 2005). These deposits are genetically linked to plutons exhibiting specific geochemical characteristics, typically being metaluminous A-type granites, some of which can be alkalic (Hart 2005). However, the veins within the Hatu gold deposit are predominantly controlled by the ENE-trending Anqi fault and its subsidiary faults. The observed age relationships and consistent vein orientation strongly suggest that regional tectonic events have significantly controlled the mineralization, and no evidence of potassic alteration is evident in the Hatu gold district (Shen and Jin 1993; Zhu et al. 2013; Wang and Zhu 2015; Zheng et al. 2022).
5.3 Tectono-metallogenic model for the Hatu gold deposit
The mineralization of Hatu gold deposit is intricately linked to the brittle to brittle-ductile deformation of volcano-sedimentary rocks (Shen et al. 2016), manifesting within structurally-controlled dilational fractures (Xiao et al. 2010b). Accompanied by the evolving collisional orogenesis, the Hatu deposit underwent a three-stage hydrothermal process, aligning with the typical orogenic-type metallogenic system in the terrane scale CMF (collision, metallogenesis, and fluid) model (Chen et al. 2022). During the collision between the Yili-Kazakhstan and Siberian plates, underthrusting and metamorphic devolatilization of the Early Carboniferous volcanic and sedimentary rocks generated carbonic-rich fluids that migrated upward along shear zones and faults, precipitating the ore-forming metals upon reaching the brittle-ductile to brittle transition zone due to fracturing and pressure decreases (Fig. 10). The genetic model of gold deposits formed by collisional orogeny may facilitate future prospecting for similar deposits or extensions of existing ones in the West Junggar.
The metallogenic model of Hatu gold deposit (modified after Chen 2013)
6 Conclusion
The Hatu orogenic gold deposit is a volcano-sedimentary rock-hosted orogenic gold deposit. Ore-forming process involves the formation of early-stage pyrite-quartz-albite, middle-stage polymetallic sulfides-ankerite-quartz, and late-stage quartz-pyrite.
The sulfur isotopic values of sulfides range from − 0.8‰ to 1.3‰, averaging 0.4‰, while the lead isotopic compositions closely resemble those of the Early Carboniferous volcanic rocks, suggesting that the ore-forming metals were mainly sourced from the Early Carboniferous volcano-sedimentary rocks.
The gold mineralization in West Junggar may have resulted from the metamorphic devolatilization of the Early Carboniferous during the Permo-Carboniferous collision between the Yili-Kazakhstan and Siberian continental plates.
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Acknowledgements
The Western Region Gold Co., Ltd. and the geology team at the Hatu gold mine are heartly acknowledged for providing help and access to samples and information used in this study. Discussion with Dr. Rongzhen Tang helpfully improved the manuscript. We also thank Jiaxin Ding for her assistance with isotope analysis. We thank editor and an anonymous reviewer for their insightful comments and detailed reviews, which improved the quality of this manuscript.
Funding
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 42172093, 42202075, and 42302108), the Key Research and Development Project of Xinjiang (No. 2023B03015), the Uygur Autonomous Region Tianchi Talent Project, and the Natural Science Foundation of Xinjiang (No. 2022D01A344) and China Scholarship Council (202304180004).
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This study was conceptualized by Shen Han, Zhenju Zhou and Yanjing Chen. Field investigation was carried out by Shen Han, Xiaohua Deng, and Yong Wang. Shen Han, Zhenju Zhou and Yanjing Chen interpreted the data and wrote the manuscript, with contributions from all other authors.
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Han, S., Zhou, Z., Deng, X. et al. Geology and S-Pb isotope geochemistry of the Hatu gold deposit in West Junggar, NW China: Insights into ore genesis and metal source. Acta Geochim (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11631-024-00727-w
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11631-024-00727-w