Introduction

Poverty is a complex and pervasive problem that affects various layers of society, including those in urban and rural areas and individuals from different socioeconomic backgrounds. According to Cling (2002), the concept of poverty can be viewed from two perspectives: absolute poverty and relative poverty (Norzita Jamil et al., 2020). In Malaysia, poverty manifests in both urban and rural settings, but urban poverty is particularly pronounced in densely populated cities like Kuala Lumpur. In urban areas, especially in government housing projects like the Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR), the manifestations of poverty can be particularly severe due to high population density and limited access to essential resources.

Kuala Lumpur, as the economic hub of Malaysia and a focal point for global activities (Rameli, 2022), showcases stark differences between urban and rural areas, each with unique characteristics. Despite its economic prominence, Kuala Lumpur is not immune to poverty. Data from the e-Kasih report shows a sharp increase in the number of poor and extreme poor residents in Kuala Lumpur, reaching 10,200 families (Bernama, 2021). This indicates that, despite being an economic center, the problem of poverty, particularly urban poverty, remains a serious concern in the capital.

Urban poverty in areas like the Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR) is especially visible, highlighting deteriorating economic conditions among urban residents, with specific challenges such as limited access to stable employment, adequate housing, and sufficient education and health services. The latest study by the Department of Statistics Malaysia shows an increase in the incidence of absolute poverty in urban areas, while the content of households in rural areas has shown a reduction. The Household Income Survey indicates that 77.8 percent of households in Malaysia live in urban areas, with states like the Federal Territory, Selangor, Penang, Melaka, and Johor exceeding the national average, ranging from 79.1 to 100.0 percent.

In Malaysia, poverty can also be understood through differences in community income levels. These differences have led to the formation of income categories based on household income, such as the Top-20 (T20), Middle-40 (M40), and Bottom-40 (B40) groups. The terms T20, M40, and B40 represent the income distribution of the country's population, categorizing the highest 20 percent, middle 40 percent, and lowest 40 percent, respectively (Mohd Khan et al., 2021). Households earning less than RM5, 250 per month are classified as low-income (B40), those earning between RM5, 250 and RM11,819 per month fall into the middle-income group (M40), and those earning more than RM11,820 per month are classified as high-income (T20) (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2023a; Ismail & Jeli, 2020).

The B40 group, in particular, is highly susceptible to poverty. There is a common perception within the community that poverty in these families is caused by a lack of motivation or a reluctance to strive for a better life. As a result, the B40 group is often referred to as a “vulnerable group” or “a group that is easily threatened” (Yahaya & Mohd, 2020). Therefore, this study focuses more on the B40 group than on the M40 or T20 groups, given their heightened vulnerability and the challenges they face in urban settings.

A rough picture shows that the lives of poor households in Kuala Lumpur are often not guaranteed, leading to various challenges. Conditions such as less comfortable housing and rising property prices in Kuala Lumpur (Rameli, 2022) can exacerbate poverty and affect the overall quality of life of the population. According to Adam (2022), housing is an important component in achieving a high quality of life. The Malaysian government has introduced several housing programs such as the Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR), Skim Rumah Pertamaku (SPR), and Perumahan Rakyat 1 Malaysia (PR1MA) to ensure affordable housing for its citizens (Large, 2018). However, real estate prices in Kuala Lumpur continue to rise, in line with economic growth and job opportunities in the city (Osman & Saini, 2019), creating challenges for the authorities in ensuring access to affordable housing for all levels of society.

Based on the entire discussion above, it clearly shows that housing is a major issue in the development of community welfare, especially in urban areas. In the context of rising house prices and the high cost of living, low-income residents often face great challenges to owning their own home and a decent place to live (Salleh & Latiffi, 2021). Through initiatives such as the People's Housing Program (PPR), it is one of the efforts made to provide affordable housing in dense areas such as Kuala Lumpur. Nevertheless, there are several issues that arise in the PPR area such as the problem of overcrowding of families in small houses, cleanliness, health, and lack of parking spaces (Jahada & Lau, 2021). The development of low-cost houses often focuses only on the boarding house aspect without considering the quality, comfort, and privacy of the occupants after they live in the house (Makinde, 2015). Thus, this study aims to examine the reality of the lives of B40 urban poor families in PPR Kerinchi, Kuala Lumpur, by focusing on the relationship between the number of dependents and their quality of life, as well as identifying the main issues faced among them.

The results of this study are expected to give a clearer picture to the parties involved about the real life of PPR residents and the causes of poverty they face in urban areas. It is also hoped that this study will help improve the quality of life and satisfaction of the population, as well as help overcome the problem of poverty among the B40 group in the city.

Literature review

Many previous studies have been carried out to determine the factors, consequences and causes of poverty which are quite different but seem different at a certain level (Irfan et al., 2023). The number of dependents in a family has a great impact on the level of poverty. The more dependents, the more expenses the head of the family must bear (Maulana, 2019). In Malaysia, most families are not only responsible for the expenses and care of children, but also have to support other family members who live together, such as elderly parents and siblings. Studies show that the economic well-being of a family is affected by the number of dependents and sometimes many dependents can result in a family being poor (Al Manun & Adaikalam, 2011).

Most developing countries launched family planning programs (FPP) in the 1960s/70 s to control rapid population growth and reduce fertility rates (Keh Yoong Hoo & Siow Li Lai, 2023). Many of the poor lack knowledge about family planning, and they are not even aware of the importance of this practice for the family's economic stability. The importance of community empowerment in relation to family planning practices is recognized as an effort to improve overall family well-being, both in terms of health and economics (Rose & Sulo, 2021). In addition, financial factors are often the main consideration in the decision to have many children due to the increasing cost of living (Shahimi, 2018). Many urban families choose to practice family planning to ensure their income is in line with the number of dependents they have. Therefore, efforts to approach and raise awareness about the importance of family planning need to be expanded among poor families in urban areas, to understand its impact on economic stability and family well-being.

In addition, education and poverty also have a close relationship and mutually influence each other. Poverty is also one of the main obstacles to the progress of education in a country. To provide better opportunities for the educational development of the nation's children, the main step that must be taken is to eradicate poverty. Education is considered an important human right, which is the key for individuals to live a meaningful life and make a positive contribution to their society (Rodriguez, 2020).

Nevertheless, the inability to access education, which is often a vicious cycle that continues from one generation to the next in a family, can also hinder the financial stability of a family (Rodriguez, 2020). Children who do not have access to education are at higher risk of being exploited or married off at an early age, which in turn limits their future opportunities and perpetuates the cycle of poverty from one generation to the next (Dubay, 2021). This situation illustrates a vicious cycle in which poor families are trapped in continuous poverty. These families are often limited in resources and opportunities to improve their economic situation, thus being trapped in a cycle of poverty that continues for the next three generations (Dubay, 2021). Children, as the most vulnerable individuals, are directly affected by the effects of this cycle of poverty. They depend on adults to meet their needs, making it difficult for them to escape the cycle of poverty due to their limited resources and access (Dubay, 2021).

In Malaysia, several studies conducted on the B40 group have revealed various issues about the education aspect among the B40 group. There are B40s who experience poverty, lose their jobs or earn insufficient income and are forced to stop their children's schooling. According to a study by Allang et al., (2019), the B40 group, who usually grew up in unstable socioeconomic conditions, tend to have a low level of education and face problems in reading and writing (Zamri Mahamod et al., 2021). Learning problems that are often faced by students in class B40 include limited reading and writing abilities, low attendance at school, often late in learning, loss of focus and motivation in the learning process (Wan Nur Izzati Hazwani Kashfi et al., 2022). In this context, a comprehensive and sustainable approach is needed to ensure that B40 students have sufficient support and resources to overcome the learning challenges they face. Therefore, efforts to provide wider access to education and improve the quality of education are very important in breaking the cycle of continuous poverty.

In addition, although money is not everything, a person's well-being is directly related to the stability of their life. Life stability includes basic aspects such as access to food, shelter, and work to meet the family's daily needs (Zakaria, 2022). Given the current economic situation, it is important for the Malaysian government to review the classification of household income in the country, especially in big cities like Kuala Lumpur. One of the main aspects in determining family classification in Malaysia is through the assessment of the income they receive and the number of dependents they have (Khamis, 2023). According to the Department of Statistics Malaysia (2023), in 2022 the average gross household income at the national level is RM8, 479. For the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, the average household income is RM13, 325. Based on this data, there is a significant difference between the average household income at the national level and the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. The impact of higher average household income in Kuala Lumpur has a significant impact on the city's residents as they can enjoy high quality services more easily. However, residents also face a higher cost of living than other areas in the country. The higher cost of living in Kuala Lumpur contributes to the increase in the price of real estate, food items, and other services which can adversely affect the residents especially in the city of Kuala Lumpur. This increase can increase the financial pressure among the population, especially those who have a large number of dependents. Therefore, the impact of the rising cost of living in Kuala Lumpur affects the financial stability and well-being of families, putting more pressure on those with large dependents.

The number of family members determines how many needs the family needs to meet. The more family members, the more needs to be met, and vice versa. The number of dependents including the number of dependent children will give additional burden to the head of the family in meeting daily needs. For example, a family with five small children who need care in a daycare should prioritize spending on this (Khamis, 2023). In addition, disabled or elderly dependent family members will also affect the size of family expenses (Ichsan et al., 2021). This can indirectly disrupt financial resources especially for those with low incomes because the cost of basic needs such as food, house rent and electricity bills is high.

Apart from limited financial resources, the urban poor who have a large number of dependents also face difficulties in obtaining adequate health services. This health service means health expenditure that covers aspects such as emergency aid preparation, family planning activities, health services and nutritional activities set for health but does not include the provision of sanitation and water (Muda et al., 2020). According to Marbin et al., (2022) many studies have shown the impact of low income on aspects of health and mortality in countries around the world. Among them the study by Tibber et al. (2022) revealed as many as 42 studies with data from 7,744,469 participants found that income inequality or low income among individuals tends to be associated with poor general mental health, depression, and psychosis in adults. Similarly, there are 26 studies from mostly high-income countries reporting a positive relationship between income inequality and depression, with greater effects for women and low-income subpopulations (Patel et al., 2018). Thus, it is clearly seen that people with low income, income inequality and poverty experience economic challenges that cause them to be limited in seeking medical help, especially in the health aspect (Shahimi, 2018; Zakaria, 2022).

In addition, limited financial conditions also prevent low-income groups, especially those living in urban areas, from prioritizing choosing nutritious food for the family. Most of them must choose a store close to their home, based on the low cost of transportation, although sometimes the price of goods may be higher. This results in this group having to choose food that may be less nutritious, due to financial constraints, which can affect the health and development of children. A study from the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Report shows that children in public housing project (PPR) areas around Kuala Lumpur are underweight, with 15% of them under five years old (Johari, 2018). This situation raises concerns because underweight can have a negative impact on a child's growth and development, including health problems such as a weak immune system, lack of energy, and learning problems. Factors such as lack of nutrition in the diet, limited access to quality food, and financial pressure among poor families in PPR areas may contribute to this problem. Therefore, immediate action needs to be taken to increase access to quality food, raise awareness about healthy eating, and provide assistance to families in PPR areas to ensure that children's basic nutritional needs are met.

In conclusion, the issue of poverty among the B40 group in the city of Kuala Lumpur is complex and requires a holistic approach to overcome it. Factors such as the large number of dependents, limited access to housing, education, and health services, as well as the financial pressure experienced by families, contribute to continued poverty among the B40 group in the city of Kuala Lumpur.

Therefore, various measures need to be taken to increase access to health and education services, as well as increase the economic opportunities of the B40 group in the city of Kuala Lumpur. This includes government efforts to reassess income policies, provide appropriate financial assistance, and improve access to quality health and education services. In addition, the community's own efforts also play an important role in overcoming the problem of poverty in the city of Kuala Lumpur. With strong support and cooperation between government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and local communities, proactive steps can be taken to provide assistance and support to the B40 group in lifting them out of poverty. Among the steps and efforts that can be taken by the community is getting involved in community development programs, such as skills training, entrepreneurship assistance, and education programs towards financial awareness, aimed at giving the B40 group the ability to get out of the cycle of poverty. With continuous cooperation and strong commitment from all parties, it is expected that the problem of poverty in the city of Kuala Lumpur can be overcome gradually, improving the quality of life and well-being of the local community.

Methodology

Study area

This study was conducted by residents of the Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR) Kerinchi, Kuala Lumpur. PPR Kerinchi is located in the Kuala Lumpur's Kerinchi area and is one of many housing projects built across the country to assist low-income populations in obtaining accommodation. This area was chosen because of its diverse population distribution and basic demographic characteristics that can help answer the study's questions and objectives, such as respondents' gender, age distribution, ethnic groups, religion, marital status, education, household size, and income levels at both the national and state level. Our site was chosen because PPR Kerinchi is in a densely populated neighbourhood of the big metropolis of Kuala Lumpur, which will have an important effect on our research.

Taking into account Malaysia's income classification, this study focused mainly on the B40 category of income than the M40 or T20 categories. This is owing to considerable income inequalities, the B40 households group's vulnerability to economic shifts, and the need for more targeted economic recovery initiatives within the B40 group. The high density of PPR Kerinchi inhabitants was a consideration in picking this place. This is because the bulk of the population have B40 status and work in a variety of formal and informal sectors. The majority of respondents labour in the private sector, with 24% unemployed or not working (Field research, 2023). As a result, many of them are constantly struggling financially, which is exacerbated by the city's high cost of living. They also deal with debt, such as rent, car payments, and utility expenses (Saeril, 2021).

Furthermore, while living moderately, the B40 group's income is extremely limited and insufficient. However, this group lacks appropriate emergency funds in the event of an emergency. Kuala Lumpur’s unemployment rate was 2.6 percent in 2019, rising to 4.0 percent in 2020 (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2021; Special Budget Portal, 2021). According to a UNICEF and UNFPA assessment of 500 PPR homes in Kuala Lumpur, the unemployment rate more than doubled between September and December 2020. In that year, 15% of household heads lost their jobs in December 2020, compared to 7% in September 2020 (UNICEF and UNFPA Malaysia, 2021). This circumstance has had a profound impact on the health and socioeconomic status of the PPR population. Clearly, these difficulties are the reason PPR Kerinchi was chosen for this investigation. Refer Fig. 1 for reference.

Fig. 1
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Study area map showing the location of PPR Kerinchi within Kuala Lumpur. The map highlights the proximity of PPR Kerinchi to the Kuala Lumpur City Centre, with administrative boundaries delineated. The inset map provides an overview of Peninsular Malaysia, pinpointing the study area

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Total sample

The total population of Kerinchi PPR residents recorded is 1895 units. To determine the estimated number of samples required, a calculation using the Slovin Formula was done, and it was found that the number of samples required was 330 (Refer to Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
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Formula Slovin

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Although the estimated sample is n = 330, but the total sample of respondents obtained in this study is 334 respondents. The appropriate justification for taking 334 samples even though the original estimate is only 330 is because getting the number of respondents that exceeds the estimate is something common in studies. It is expected that taking a sample that slightly exceeds this estimate, can increase the reliability in interpreting the data.

Data analysis

Next, the research data was analysed using descriptive analysis using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 27. The descriptive analysis was chosen based on the objective of the study which examines the reality of the lives of urban poor families B40 in PPR Kerinchi Kuala Lumpur, focusing on the relationship and number of dependents with their quality of life as well as identifying the main issues they face. The analysis also involves the socio-demographic profile and social status of the population among the respondents. This approach allows the researcher to examine the relationships and patterns between demographic information and social status in a predetermined context, while focusing specifically on the needs of this research. The research instrument uses a set of questionnaires. The estimated time given for respondents to answer this questionnaire is around 10 to 15 min. The questionnaire consists of five sections that include the respondent's profile, the respondent's socioeconomic profile, as well as social status such as education, health, and housing.

Findings and discussion

This section discusses the study's findings, focusing on the perspectives of urban poor families within the B40 category in Kerinchi PPR. The discussion analyzes the socio-demographic profile of the respondents, specifically examining how the number of dependents influences their quality of life. This analysis directly addresses the research questions, which seek to understand the relationship between household size and quality of life among B40 urban poor families. By examining data on household size, education, health, and income, the discussion aims to identify key issues faced by the respondents and how these factors contribute to or detract from their overall well-being.

The discussion provides an accurate depiction of the real-life conditions experienced by the B40 group in this PPR area. The statistics presented highlight critical factors within the respondents' socio-demographic profile, such as age distribution, marital status, and household income levels. These statistics are not merely descriptive but are also directly linked to the research objectives. For instance, the data on household income and the number of dependents are analyzed to determine how these variables impact quality of life, which is a central focus of this study. This approach ensures that each finding is rooted in specific data points, providing clear evidence to support the conclusions drawn.

Demographic information

Based on the findings, the socio-demographic profile of the respondents will be discussed in every aspect. Refer to Table 1.

Table 1 Profile demographic.
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The study results revealed that the majority of respondents were aged between 40 and 59 years (57.2%), followed by those aged 60 to 79 years (25.7%), and 20 to 39 years (16.5%). Only two respondents were in the 80 years and above age group. The gender distribution was evenly split, with 167 male and 167 female respondents (50.0% each). Regarding marital status, a significant majority, 233 respondents (66.8%) were married, while 18 respondents (5.4%) were single, and an equal number were either single parents or widowed.

In terms of ethnic composition, the PPR Kerinchi area in Kuala Lumpur is ethnically diverse, with the Malay ethnic group being the predominant Head of Households (HoHs) at 76.9%, followed by Indian (21.6%), Chinese (1.2%), and Sikh (0.3%) groups. This demographic distribution suggests that targeted poverty alleviation efforts should focus on the Malay community, which forms the largest proportion of the B40 group in this area. Given their significant representation, poverty interventions designed with cultural sensitivity and a deep understanding of the community's unique challenges are more likely to be effective. Additionally, the large proportion of respondents in the 40 to 59 age group indicates that these individuals are likely to be in their peak working years. Therefore, strategies aimed at enhancing employment opportunities, job stability, and income support could have a substantial impact on improving the socio-economic conditions of this demographic.

The number of dependents

This study examines the number of dependents for each respondent, which is a critical factor in evaluating family spending patterns and overall economic pressure. The term 'dependents' is defined here as the number of individuals relying on the household income for basic needs, including food, education, and healthcare, as outlined by Purwanto & Taftazani (2018). This includes siblings, elderly parents, biological children, adopted children, and other individuals who live in the same household and rely on the household income for their basic needs such as food, education, and healthcare, but are not yet working to support themselves.

The data reveals that the majority of respondents, 59.60% (199 individuals), have between five and eight dependents (Refer to Fig. 3). In this study, 'financial strain' refers to the pressure experienced by households when their income is insufficient to cover all necessary expenses, forcing them to make difficult trade-offs between basic needs. This finding underscores the significant financial strain placed on these households, as they must stretch limited resources to meet the needs of a large number of dependents. The high number of dependents amplifies the economic burden on households, particularly in an urban setting like Kuala Lumpur, where the cost of living is already high. As a result, these families often face difficult decisions about how to allocate their income, leading to potential sacrifices in essential areas such as education, healthcare, and nutrition.

Fig. 3
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Source Field study, 2023

Total dependents of Head of Households (HoHs) PPR Kerinchi Kuala Lumpur.

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The average household size of 6.5 individuals per unit in the PPR is indicative of the congestion issues within these living spaces. The implications of such congestion are profound. A study by the Khazanah Research Institute (2023) found that 20.5% of PPR households in Kuala Lumpur suffer from overcrowding, leading to situations where more than two individuals share a single room. This overcrowding exacerbates the already challenging living conditions for these families, further complicating their financial management and reducing their ability to improve their socio-economic status. The combination of high dependency ratios and overcrowded living conditions makes it even more difficult for these families to escape the cycle of poverty.

Household income

Household income is a critical determinant of a family's ability to meet its needs and responsibilities. In this study, the income of the HoHs was assessed using the gross monthly household income limits Malaysia, defined by the Department of Statistics Malaysia (2023b). This measure provides a clear understanding of the financial standing of the families within the study population, enabling a comprehensive analysis of how household income influences other critical factors, such as the number of dependents and overall quality of life.

Based on the findings (Table 2), it was discovered that the majority of household heads belong to the B40 income group, with a gross income limit less than RM5, 250. A total of 330 respondents (98.8%) reported an income below RM5, 250, indicating a predominant representation of low-income households within the study. In contrast, only three respondents (0.9%) were in the M40 category (RM5, 250 to RM11, 819), and just one respondent (0.3%) fell into the T20 category (above RM11, 820). This data clearly demonstrates that a significant portion of the population in PPR Kerinchi, Kuala Lumpur, is economically disadvantaged, with nearly all respondents falling into the B40 category. The concentration of B40 households in this urban area highlights the extent of economic challenges faced by these families, who are particularly vulnerable to the high cost of living in Kuala Lumpur (Table 2).

Moreover, the correlation between household income and the number of dependents is evident, as shown in Table 3, where 197 out of 334 respondents in the B40 group support between five and eight dependents. In this context, economic vulnerability refers to the susceptibility of households to financial instability and hardship due to a combination of low income and high dependency ratios. This high dependency ratio places additional financial pressure on these households, exacerbating their economic vulnerability. The combination of low income and high dependency ratios means that these families must stretch their limited financial resources across many dependents, making it difficult to allocate funds for essential needs such as education, healthcare, and nutrition. This situation is particularly concerning in an urban context like Kuala Lumpur, where the cost of living is significantly higher, further straining the already limited resources of these households (Table 2).

Table 2 Respondent’s income limit.
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The study results indicate that the majority of respondents in the B40 group, earning less than RM5, 250, have between five to eight dependents, representing 197 out of 334 respondents (59%) (Refer to Table 3). This is followed by households with one to four dependents, accounting for 92 respondents (27.5%), nine to 12 dependents with 36 respondents (10.8%), and only five respondents (1.5%) who have 12 or more dependents. In contrast, within the M40 income category, only two respondents (0.6%) have between five to eight dependents, and one respondent (0.3%) has nine to 12 dependents. The T20 category includes just one respondent (0.3%) with nine to 12 dependents, further illustrating the disparity in dependency ratios across income levels.

Table 3 Total dependents and respondent’s monthly income.
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These findings underscore the significant financial strain experienced by HoHs in the B40 category, where the combination of low income and high dependency ratios amplifies economic vulnerability. In a high-cost urban environment like Kuala Lumpur, the necessity to meet the basic needs of a large number of dependents with limited income creates considerable financial pressure. This pressure is particularly acute for B40 households, as they are forced to stretch their limited financial resources to cover essential needs such as food, housing, and healthcare, often at the expense of other important areas like education and savings. To manage this burden, it is critical for HoHs to adopt a strategic approach to spending, focusing on essential needs as suggested by Wahab et al. (2018). Prioritizing these necessities over less critical expenditures can help alleviate financial stress, but it also highlights the difficult trade-offs that B40 households must navigate daily. Additionally, HoHs facing economic challenges can seek supplementary income through side jobs or part-time work to bolster their financial resources. By embracing these smart financial practices, families can achieve a more balanced financial state and enhance their overall well-being.

Educational aspects

Education is a crucial determinant of the socio-economic status of family dependents and plays a vital role in shaping their future opportunities. It is not only a fundamental right but also a significant factor that imposes considerable financial pressure on families, particularly those in lower-income groups like the B40 category. In this study, dependents still receiving education are classified as individuals or family members currently enrolled in educational institutions. These institutions range from primary and secondary schools to universities and other educational programs or training courses. In this context, 'dependent' refers to children, relatives, or other family members who rely on HOHs to cover their educational expenses. This classification is crucial for understanding the additional financial burden placed on households, as education-related costs such as tuition fees, textbooks, and school supplies can strain already limited resources. Refer to Table 4:

Table 4 Status of dependents currently receiving education.
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Based on the study’s findings, the majority of respondents, 194 people (58.1%) have dependents who are currently receiving education. In contrast, 91 respondents (27.2%) have no dependents involved in education, and 49 respondents (14.7%) are unrelated to this aspect. The responsibility of funding education significantly impacts the financial situation of HoHs in PPR Kerinchi. This financial strain arises from the need to cover various educational costs, such as school fees, textbooks, reference materials, equipment, and other education-related expenses (Endang Budi et al., 2022). Despite the financial burden, investing in the education of dependents is crucial for their future. Quality education is a powerful tool with the potential to produce long-term positive effects on an individual’s quality of life. Therefore, careful planning is essential to manage these educational expenses while maintaining a balanced family budget.

Additionally, the study explores the challenges faced by the urban poor as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which began in 2020. The living conditions of the urban poor, particularly those residing in PPR and low-cost housing, were severely impacted by the pandemic (Firouz, 2021). During the Movement Control Order (MCO) period, many PPR residents were unable to work, exacerbating their already strained financial situations. For those who were required to physically attend their workplaces, the risk of COVID-19 infection was significantly heightened (Firouz, 2021). The study also investigated the educational challenges encountered by respondents during the pandemic, as most educational institutions shifted to online learning. This transition posed several difficulties for the respondents, including limited access to digital resources, inadequate internet connectivity, and the challenge of adapting to new learning environments, as detailed in Table 5.

Table 5 Education issues during online learning in the era of the COVID-19 pandemic.
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The table above illustrates the varied responses of respondents regarding the issue of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Utilizing a Likert scale with five options, the respondents’ opinions were distributed fairly evenly across the categories, reflecting a diverse range of perspectives. This distribution indicates that public opinion was divided, with no overwhelming consensus on the effectiveness of online learning during this period. For instance, on the issue of limited reference materials, a significant portion of respondents 55.3% agreed that acquiring reference materials was challenging during the pandemic. This finding underscores the difficulties faced by students, particularly those in the B40 group, who lacked adequate resources for effective online learning. Additionally, 46.1% of respondents “Agree” and 32.6% “Strongly Agree” that the amendments to school sessions and tests during the MCO period were appropriate, highlighting a general acceptance of the educational adjustments made in response to the pandemic.

However, 82.0% of respondents reported that limited internet access significantly hindered the quality of education during online learning. This limitation was especially detrimental to families with multiple school-aged children, exacerbating the challenges faced by B40 households. With financial constraints intensified during the MCO period, many families prioritized essential expenses like food, rent, and emergency savings over the purchase of internet services and devices necessary for online education (Nor Sahara, & Zulkarnain, 2021). As a result, this prioritization created difficulties for parents who struggled to monitor and support their children’s Teaching and Learning at Home (PdPR) activities, further widening the educational gap between B40 students and their more affluent peers. Despite these challenges, 47.9% of respondents “Agree” that home-based education during the pandemic strengthened the relationship between students and their parents. This outcome can be attributed to the increased interaction and involvement of parents in their children's academic lives, which not only allowed parents to gain better insights into their children’s academic performance but also positively influenced the social development and educational outcomes of the children (Atan et al., 2021).

Furthermore, 85.1% of respondents recognized the benefits of online learning in enhancing students' technological skills and development. The exposure to various digital platforms during online learning was seen as a valuable opportunity for students to acquire essential technology skills that are increasingly important in the digital age. However, it is important to note that a substantial number of respondents also expressed “Strongly Disagree” and “Disagree” sentiments. This indicates that significant concerns or unresolved issues remain regarding the effectiveness of online learning, suggesting that further improvements are necessary to ensure that online education can be delivered effectively and equitably.

Health aspects

Addressing health issues among the urban poor is crucial due to its significant implications for the overall welfare of families and individuals. Studies show that individuals with a stable source of income generally experience better health outcomes than those with lower socioeconomic status (Irfan et al., 2023). Urban poor families, however, are more susceptible to heightened mental and emotional stress, primarily due to financial strain and the challenges of daily life. This stress is compounded by difficulties in obtaining adequate supplies of food and medicine, as financial constraints severely limit access to necessary health services and quality nutrition.

In this study, health vulnerability refers to the increased risk of adverse health outcomes faced by individuals or groups due to limited access to healthcare services, inadequate nutrition, and the mental and emotional stress associated with poverty. In the context of nutrition, the limited access to balanced and nutritious food increases the risk of obesity or malnutrition, particularly if proper eating habits are not maintained. This nutritional deficiency is a direct result of economic hardship, which forces families to prioritize cheaper, less nutritious food options. Regarding healthcare access, urban poor HoHs face significant challenges. These challenges include a lack of health insurance, difficulties in securing transportation to health centers, and inadequate health facilities within their residential areas. These barriers contribute to the health vulnerability of urban poor families by making it difficult for them to receive timely and quality healthcare, thereby exacerbating existing health issues.

The data in Table 6 further illustrates these challenges, showing that a large percentage of respondents experience mental health issues, limited access to medicine, and inadequate nutrition. These findings highlight the critical need for targeted interventions to improve the health outcomes of urban poor families.

Table 6 Health aspects among HoHs.
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Based on Table 6, it is evident that the mental health of HoHs in Kerinchi is significantly impacted, with 78 percent (259 respondents) reporting that their mental health is affected. Conversely, only 22 percent (75 respondents) stated that their mental health remained unaffected. This high percentage of mental health issues can be attributed to the socioeconomic challenges and life stressors faced by these households, which heighten the risk of mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, and worry. These findings corroborate previous research by Beemer et al. (2023), which indicates that individuals raised in urban environments with limited financial resources are more prone to mental disorders. This is further supported by Elliot (2016) and Leong Abdullah et al. (2021), who identified factors such as low socioeconomic status, reduced social capital, higher pollution rates, and exposure to violence and crime as significant contributors to psychological distress among urban residents compared to their rural counterparts.

Furthermore, 65 percent (216 respondents) reported experiencing a limited supply of medicine, compared to 35 percent (118 respondents) who did not face this issue. The substantial proportion of respondents encountering this problem is likely due to the financial difficulties faced by the urban poor, who struggle to afford the high cost of medicine, making it challenging for them to purchase medication regularly or in sufficient quantities. Additionally, 60 percent of respondents admitted that they face challenges related to the lack of quality food supply. According to Neha Hamzah (2021), economically disadvantaged individuals often cannot afford nutritious food, leading them to opt for cheaper, less healthy options, particularly in larger families.

Regarding access to healthcare, the findings reveal that a significant majority of respondents 90 percent (300 respondents) face difficulties in accessing healthcare services. This issue arises from a complex set of factors, including the high cost of health services, expensive doctor consultations, transportation challenges, and road congestion, all of which hinder the urban poor from obtaining adequate healthcare. A study by Abdul Wahab et al. (2022) on several PPRs in Kuala Lumpur found that the urban poor largely rely on public transport, such as buses and trains, to reach public clinics. Although some clinics are located within two kilometres of their homes, the time taken to travel can be considerable due to limited transportation options and traffic congestion. This demonstrates that both the distance to healthcare providers and travel time can significantly impact access to healthcare, particularly for the urban poor.

Overall, the high number of dependents among the urban poor exacerbates not only financial stress but also health and well-being risks within these families. Therefore, it is crucial to implement measures that reduce the dependency burden and enhance access to health services and financial resources to improve the welfare of urban poor households.

Conclusion

This article has explored the realities of life for the B40 group in PPR Kerinchi, Kuala Lumpur, focusing on critical aspects such as the socioeconomic profile of respondents, the number of dependents, household income, education, online learning, and healthcare access. The study’s findings highlight significant economic and educational challenges faced by these communities, underscoring the urgent need for targeted interventions to enhance their well-being.

In light of the comprehensive discussion on the challenges confronting the B40 group in PPR Kerinchi, it is imperative to develop and implement effective solutions that address their unique needs. Improving their quality of life requires a multifaceted approach, including enhancing access to quality education, upgrading educational facilities, and ensuring the availability of affordable, high-quality healthcare services. Furthermore, the expansion of assistance programs, skills training, and integrated community development initiatives are crucial in empowering these communities. By adopting these strategies, we can help the urban poor achieve a higher standard of living and contribute to narrowing the socioeconomic gap within society.